Is There Anybody Out There? Coping and Belonging Strategies: Correlations with Depression,Anxiety,and Stress among Latinx Undergraduates

Abstract

The study examined the correlational and predictive relationship between religious coping and a sense of belonging on 202 Latinx undergraduates’ depression, anxiety, and stress. Religious coping refers to the reliance on religious beliefs or practices to cope with stressful life situations. A sense of belonging involves the psychological features of social integration and attachment to a community. The results of a multiple regression analysis found that positive and negative religious coping and a sense of belonging predicted 36% of the variance in Latinx students’ depression. A second regression found positive and negative religious coping, a sense of belonging, and the interaction between positive religious coping and a sense of belonging predicted 29% of the variance in anxiety. A third hierarchical regression found that 21% of the variance in stress levels was attributed to religious coping alone. The results demonstrate that students who utilized positive religious coping reported lower depression, anxiety, and stress levels. Conversely, negative religious coping contributed to depression, anxiety, and stress. A sense of belonging predicted lower depression and anxiety. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.

Keywords

cross-cultural research god concepts/god image psychology of religion religious issues in psychotherapy multicultural issues

Researchers highlight greater depression, anxiety, and stress levels among Latinx undergraduates than other college peers (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services [DHHS], 2021). Latinx youth are likelier to feel sad or hopeless than Whites or African Americans (Cobb et al., 2017; U.S. DHHS, 2021). Latina college students report some of the highest rates of depression among all students (Chang et al., 2019). Research demonstrates that Latinx youth are more likely to seriously consider suicide, make a suicide plan, and attempt suicide than their non-Latinx peers (Chang et al., 2019).

According to the literature, personal, social, and institutional stressors contribute to Latinx undergraduates’ depression, anxiety, and stress (Arbona & Jimenez, 2014; Cobb et al., 2017). Stressors, including discrimination related to ethnicity, immigrant status, and poverty (Ayón et al., 2017) and the management of family and academic responsibilities, correlate with poor psychological outcomes (Holloway-Friesen, 2022). When examining the college climate’s role in stressor management, research suggests that Latinx students may experience the college setting differently than other ethnic groups (Holloway-Friesen, 2018a, 2021, 2022). Frequently, the college environment reflects the dominant culture with its values, beliefs, and behaviors (Shelton, 2019). Many institutions are characterized by competition and individualism, contrasting with Latinx’ collectivist orientation (Holloway-Friesen, 2008; Shelton, 2019). Isolating campus environments, where students have difficulty integrating socially, contributes to feelings of anxiety and stress (Shelton, 2019) and predicts increased rates of depression among Latinx undergraduates (Arbona & Jimenez, 2014). The literature highlights that failure to maintain relations exacerbates feelings of loneliness (Chang et al., 2019) and increased psychological distress (Shelton, 2019), notable predictors of increased suicide risk among Latinx undergraduates (Chang et al., 2019).

To address these alarming mental and behavioral health trends, researchers have examined sources of support for Latinx undergraduates. A small body of literature has connected two coping strategies in stressor management: religious coping and a sense of belonging, to the improved adjustment of Latinx undergraduates (i.e., Da Silva et al., 2017; Triana et al., 2020). Pairing the concepts of religious coping and a sense of belonging together makes sense, as religious expression is often experienced in community settings.

Research demonstrates religious coping and belonging’s association with several well-being markers in college students. For example, studies link religious coping and a sense of belonging to psychological and physical well-being (Astin et al., 2011), college adjustment (Kneipp et al., 2009), and academic success (Astin et al., 2011). Other research highlights associations with improvements in students’ interpersonal connections and overall wholeness (Triana et al., 2020). However, no empirical study to date has examined religious coping and a sense of belonging in Latinx students and their impact on any mental health outcome.

The remaining portions of this article will introduce related literature on religious coping and a sense of belonging, the theoretical framework and methods used, findings, and considerations for the future. Findings from this study will contribute to the body of literature on improved management of depression, anxiety, and stress among Latinx undergraduates.

Religious Coping

Religious coping has shown promise as a source of support in easing mental health challenges, specifically among Latinx students (Da Silva et al., 2017; Sanchez et al., 2015). Religious coping describes efforts to understand and deal with life stressors and obstacles in ways that relate to the sacred. Pargament et al.’s (2011) theory of religious coping expands the notion of “sacred” beyond traditional ideas of God and incorporates other aspects of life that connect with the divine. The UCLA Higher Education Research Institution and its National Study of College Students’ Search for Meaning and Purpose found that 66% of respondents reported religious coping as a source of strength and support to psychological stressors (Astin et al., 2011).

Pargament et al. (2011) distinguishes between two types of religious coping: positive and negative religious coping. Scholars describe positive religious coping as an adaptive coping strategy that incorporates forgiveness, seeking spiritual comfort, and reevaluating challenges through the lens of connectedness with God (Kim et al., 2015). Furthermore, it is considered a robust coping strategy that calls upon an individual’s constructive relationship with God or their faith system to redefine stressors and garner strength to manage difficulties (Hart et al., 2020; Kim et al., 2015).

Research has linked positive religious coping with enhanced mental health outcomes. A study near the United States and Mexican border, using Pargament’s measure of religious coping, found positive religious coping associated with less frequent alcohol use (Sanchez et al., 2015). Another study, using Pargament’s measure, found that positive religious coping correlated with fewer adverse effects related to discrimination (Ai et al., 2013). A study of Central American female immigrants found correlations between lower depression and suicidal ideation rates among those who implemented positive religious coping (Hovey, 2000). Research using the WHOQOL-Spiritual, Religious, and Personal Beliefs scale found that religious coping predicted psychological well-being among ethnically diverse college students (Chai et al., 2012).

In contrast, negative religious coping (also noted as religious struggle in the literature) describes an individual’s tendency to attribute difficulties in life as punishment from God (Pargament et al., 2011). It forms through a misunderstanding of one’s relationship with God, which ties one’s performance to the circumstances experienced (Da Silva et al., 2017; Pargament et al., 2011). Studies using Pargament’s religious coping scale found that negative religious coping predicted decreased well-being and increased depression and anxiety (Cetty et al., 2022; Kim et al., 2015). Other studies using Pargament’s scale highlight associations between negative religious coping, acculturative stress, and increased distress among immigrant Latinx college students and young adult Latina women (Da Silva et al., 2017; Sanchez et al., 2015). Studies that used the Religious and Spiritual Struggle Scale found that religious struggle correlated with several poor psychological outcomes, including decreased life satisfaction and reduced well-being (Zarzycka & Zietek, 2018). Likewise, researchers found that high levels of religious coping, operationalized as religious struggle (Bryant & Astin, 2008), predicted declines in college students’ physical health, self-esteem (Bryant & Astin, 2008), and a sense of belonging to the campus (Holloway-Friesen, 2018b).

Although most studies suggest that negative religious coping correlates with declines in psychological health (Kim et al., 2015; Zarzycka & Zietek, 2018), some researchers believe that negative religious coping may be beneficial in some circumstances. For example, recent research found correlations between negative religious coping and stress-related growth (Hart et al., 2020), spiritual growth (Hart et al., 2020), and open-mindedness (Bryant & Astin, 2008). In addition, negative religious coping correlated with increased internal dialogue (Zarzycka & Puchalska-Wasyl, 2020), improved life satisfaction, and reduced anxiety through its effect on spiritual growth and meaning-making (Zarzycka & Zietek, 2018).

A Sense of Belonging

Researchers have called for empirical studies to examine how religious coping along with social and institutional supports beyond religion influence psychological stressors (Da Silva et al., 2017; Kim et al., 2015). A sense of belonging involves the psychological features of social integration and attachment to a community (Tovar & Simon, 2010). Researchers describe belonging as an awareness of mattering to one’s community. It reflects the esteem of members within a community who share similar beliefs and values.

The higher education literature demonstrates associations between a sense of belonging and Latinx college students’ adjustment. A sense of belonging correlates with Latinx college students’ college and life satisfaction (Castellanos et al., 2016) and predicts academic self-efficacy (Holloway-Friesen, 2021). Likewise, the psychology literature demonstrates relationships between belonging and lower rates of depression and stress levels (Zhang et al., 2018), enhanced emotional resilience, reduced acculturative stress (Holloway-Friesen, 2018a), and improved psychological well-being (Moeller et al., 2020). However, inconsistent results have emerged assessing the relationship between belonging and anxiety. One study found a positive correlation between belonging and reduced anxiety (Zhang et al., 2018), while another found no such relationship (Wright et al., 2021).

Though the literature suggests the potential influence of religious coping and belonging on Latinx college students’ overall adjustment, no study has examined the coupled relationship of religious coping and a sense of belonging on Latinx undergraduates’ depression, anxiety, and stress symptomology. The sociological stress-process model (Pearlin, 1989) examines how managing personal, social, and institutional factors reduce the frequency and severity of stressors in an individual’s life. Students’ reliance on religious coping may help students in the management of academic tasks, work commitments, and balancing of family responsibilities—all personal elements of the stress-process model. Furthermore, the concept of a sense of belonging integrates well into the stress-process model through social connections and institutional support to reduce the severity and frequency of stressors. In response to personal stressors and potential systemic barriers associated with college attendance, Latinx undergraduates may feel prompted to implement positive religious coping strategies and engage in relationships in an attempt to reframe the emotional and cognitive meaning of their college experiences (Cobb et al., 2017; Da Silva et al., 2017; Pearlin, 1989). Effective religious coping practices and high levels of campus belonging may support students’ feelings of support and strengthen their ability to overcome difficulties.

With the sociological stress-process model as a guide, this study will examine the unique and collective contribution of religious coping and a sense of belonging in predicting depression, anxiety, and stress among Latinx undergraduate students. Recent literature points to the importance of shared religious and cultural communities in supporting successful transitions into college settings and Latinx students’ overall well-being (Holloway-Friesen, 2022; Triana et al., 2020). This research aims to increase our understanding of effective coping mechanisms that support Latinx undergraduates’ mental health management. In light of research identifying suicide as the second leading cause of death among Latinx college students, examining a broader range of potential coping strategies seemed prudent (Cobb et al., 2017; U.S. DHHS, 2021).

Research Questions

First, after controlling for background characteristics (student’s self-identified gender, income, residential status), to what extent do positive and negative religious coping uniquely and collectively predict Latinx undergraduates’ depression, anxiety, and stress symptomology? Second, how does a sense of belonging predict Latinx students’ depression, anxiety, and stress above and beyond demographic and religious coping variables? Third, how does a potential interaction between positive religious coping and a sense of belonging contribute to depression, anxiety, and stress levels in Latinx undergraduates? The author hypothesized that Latinx undergraduates who implemented positive religious coping and experienced a sense of belonging would report fewer depressive, anxiety, and stress symptoms. Furthermore, the author hypothesized that students who implemented negative religious coping and reported a low sense of belonging would also express increased depression, anxiety, and stress. Finally, the author hypothesized that an interaction effect between positive religious coping and a sense of belonging would predict lower depression, anxiety, and stress levels, above and beyond other variables under study for Latinx students.

Method

The present quantitative correlational study examined the impact of religious coping and a sense of belonging on 202 Latinx undergraduate students’ mental health at a mid-sized, urban, religiously affiliated university in an ethnically diverse community on the West Coast. The author selected the institution because of the broad representation of religiously affiliated Latinx students.

Participants and procedure

As part of a more extensive study, the researcher distributed the questionnaire to 3000 undergraduates at a single institution through the campus’s institutional research office. Students were invited to participate in the study with emailed invitations sent four times over 2 weeks. Seven hundred thirty students completed the survey with a 24.3% response rate. Participants completed the survey within 20–30 minutes and were entered into a drawing for 20 Amazon gift cards worth US$25 each.

The institution boasted a relatively diverse undergraduate student body, with over half of the undergraduate population hailing from historically underrepresented groups (28% Latinx; 11% Asian and Asian American, 6% Black or African American, 5% two or more races; 5% nonresident alien). In addition, White students comprised 40% of the undergraduate population.

The author was interested in understanding the relationship between religious coping and belonging to mental health factors among Latinx undergraduate students. Thus, a subsample of 202 Latinx students was selected. Latinx students comprised 28% of the sample and 28% of the undergraduate population at the institution. Fifty-seven males (28%) and 145 females (72%) responded to the survey, somewhat reflective of the institution’s overall gender distribution (31% males, 67% females). With a relatively even spread of students across class years, 41 freshmen (20%), 51 sophomores (25%), 47 juniors (23%), and 63 seniors (31%) participated in the study. The respondents’ ages ranged from 18 to 45 (μ = 20.67, SD = 2.82). Ninety-one percent of the sample reported full-time enrollment status, with 48% self-identifying as commuter students. Two respondents skipped these items. The mean family income of participants fell within the middle class at US$85,000. Four participants did not report family income. The participants’ religious preferences included 49% Protestant tradition (all non-Catholic denominations of Christianity were combined), 25% Catholic, and 24% not disclosed. The overall campus’s religious affiliation is as follows: 62% Protestant tradition, 12% Catholic, and 24% not disclosed.

Instruments

Students completed a general demographic sheet with three standardized instruments.

Demographic sheet

The demographic sheet addressed age, race/ethnicity, immigrant, and income status, enrollment status, class standing, residential status, and parental educational attainment.

Religious coping

The Brief Religious Coping Scale (Brief RCOPE, Pargament et al., 2011) measured positive and negative religious coping. The Brief RCOPE is a widely used measure of religious coping that splits the construct into positive and negative religious coping subscales. The scale included 14 items that used a 4-point Likert-type scale with responses ranging from 1 (not at all) to 4 (a great deal). Sample items from the positive religious coping subscale included the following: (1) “Tried to see how God might be trying to strengthen me in this situation” and (2) “Looked for a stronger connection with God.” Sample items from the negative coping subscale stated: (1) “Wondered whether God had abandoned me” and (2) “I felt punished by God for my lack of devotion.” The Brief RCOPE reports good concurrent and predictive validity and has been used with diverse undergraduates and Latinx immigrants (Da Silva et al., 2017; Pargament et al., 2011; Sanchez et al., 2015). Both subscales of the Brief RCOPE demonstrate high internal consistency with diverse undergraduates (positive religious coping, α = .90; negative religious coping, α = .81; Pargament et al., 2011) and Latinx immigrants (positive religious coping, α = .95; negative religious coping, α = .83; Sanchez et al., 2015). The present study reported excellent reliability ratings for the positive religious coping subscale (α = .94) and a good rating for the negative religious coping subscale (α = .89).

Sense of belonging scales

The Sense of Belonging Scales (SOBS; Hoffman et al., 2003) consist of 26 items distributed among five subscales that examine aspects of student belongingness in a university setting. On a scale of 1 (completely true) to 5 (completely untrue), lower scores on the SOBS indicate a higher sense of belonging. The author reverse-coded the scale to assist with interpreting the results. Tovar and Simon (2010) assessed the SOBS’s psychometric properties and factorial structure, resulting in a reduced 16-item scale which was used in the present study. Prior research demonstrated the appropriateness of this scale with Latinx graduate students (Holloway-Friesen, 2021; α = .93). Sample items from the SOBS included, “I have discussed personal matters with students who I met in class” and “I feel comfortable talking about a problem with faculty.” The present study reported excellent reliability ratings for the Sense of Belonging Scale (α = .93).

Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale-21

The Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) is a self-report measure short-form of the full-length DASS in which respondents rate the frequency and severity of experiencing negative emotions over the previous week. The developers designed the measure to assess the unique and distinct aspects of depression, anxiety, and stress. The DASS-21 consists of 21 items on a 4-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 0 (Did not apply to me at all) to 4 (Applied to me very much, or most of the time). Higher scores reflect increased depression, anxiety, and stress symptomatology. Sample items from the depression subscale included, “I felt that I had nothing to look forward to” and “I couldn’t seem to experience any positive feeling at all.” One item from the anxiety subscale included “I felt close to panic,” and another from the stress subscale included “I tend to overreact to situations.” The DASS-21 produced acceptable to excellent reliability ratings and exhibited high convergent validity among Latinx adults (Franco & Carrier, 2020). The present study obtained following Cronbach’s α values for the subscales: depression subscale: α = .93, anxiety subscale: α = .88, stress subscale: α = .85, entire DASS-21: α = .95.

Statistical analyses

The data met statistical assumptions for multivariate normality, linearity, and multicollinearity (Keith, 2019). Two percent of the data were missing or incomplete. The author used listwise deletion to handle the missing cases (Schafer, 1999). The missing data were determined to be missing completely at random (MCAR) using Little’s (2012) MCAR test, χ² = 6,777.60 (df = 6,662; p = .16). With MCAR data, there are no patterns in the missing data, and missing values are not related to any variables under study (Acock, 2005).

The author conducted three hierarchical regressions to investigate the relationships between religious coping and the sense of belonging variables on three mental health outcomes: depression, anxiety, and stress. Multivariable multiple regression analysis was selected because of its ability to accommodate multiple predictor variables, where the unique contributions of each predictor can be related to the dependent variable (Keith, 2019).

To reduce potential multicollinearity in testing moderation, the author first standardized the predictors and proposed moderator to test direct effects and moderation (Frazier et al., 2004). Next, the author created a two-way interaction term for the proposed moderator of positive religious coping with a sense of belonging. Finally, the researcher entered the background characteristics in Step 1 of the regression analyses, positive and negative religious coping in Step 2, and a sense of belonging and the interaction term (positive religious coping x sense of belonging) in Step 3.

Results

Table 1 contains descriptive statistics of the scales used and correlations among the predictor variables (positive and negative religious coping and sense of belonging) and the dependent variables (depression, anxiety, and stress). Students reported fairly high positive religious coping (μ = 3.29, SD = 1.07) and moderate negative religious coping (μ = 2.16, SD = 1.28) on a 4-point Likert-type scale. Students reported a sense of belonging score of 3.12 (SD = 1.59) on a five-point scale with no differences between commuters and residential students t(168) = −1.19, p = .24.

Table 1.

Means, Standard Deviations, Scale Markers, and Correlations among the Measured Variables.

Variables	Min	Max	Mean	SD	RCOPE +	RCOPE −	SOBS	Depression	Anxiety
RCOPE +	1	4	3.29	1.07
RCOPE −	1	4	2.16	1.28	.30**
SOBS	1	5	3.12	1.59	.12	.03
Depression	7	28	13.64	5.71	−.20*	.35***	−.36***
Anxiety	7	27	13.20	5.14	−.07	.35***	−.25**	.80***
Stress	7	27	15.54	4.83	−.12	.31***	−.14	.79***	.78***

SD: standard deviation; RCOPE +: positive religious coping; RCOPE −: negative religious coping; SOBS: Sense of Belonging Scale.

p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Table 2 contains the participants’ depression, anxiety, and stress levels. Forty-five percent of participants reported moderate to very severe levels of depression, comparable to national trends among college students (American College Health Association [ACHA], 2019). Furthermore, 68% of respondents reported moderate to very severe symptoms of anxiety (ACHA, 2019). The present study’s findings were slightly higher than the national average of 63% (ACHA, 2019). Twenty-two percent of respondents reported moderate to very severe stress levels, lower than national data trends (Zwart, 2022).

Table 2.

Score Distribution for the 21-item Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale by Severity.

DASS-21 subscale	Normal (%)	Mild (%)	Moderate (%)	Severe (%)	Very severe (%)
Depression	34 (n = 56)	21 (n = 35)	32 (n = 53)	10 (n = 17)	3 (n = 5)
Anxiety	12 (n = 20)	20 (n = 33)	33 (n = 53)	22 (n = 35)	13 (n = 22)
Stress	53 (n = 88)	25 (n = 41)	20 (n = 33)	2 (n = 4)	0 (n = 0)

DASS-21: Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale, 21-item version.

Depression

The author conducted a hierarchical multiple regression to assess the relationship between positive and negative religious coping and a sense of belonging in depression in Latinx undergraduates. Background characteristics (gender, residential status, and income) accounted for 2% of the variance in depression but were insignificant predictors of depression. After holding the background variables constant, the religious coping variables in Step 2 accounted for an additional 25% of the variance in depression scores (see Table 3). In Step 3, a sense of belonging contributed an additional 9% to the variance in depressive symptomatology, above and beyond the other variables under review. The interaction term (positive religious coping x a sense of belonging) was insignificant. In summary, the final results of the multiple regression analysis found that 36% of the variance in depression was accounted for by the predictor variables, F(7, 146) = 11.56, p < .001. Negative religious coping (β = .47, p < .001), positive religious coping (β = −.24, p < .001), and a sense of belonging (β = −.26, p < .001) predicted depression outcomes. The interaction between a sense of belonging and positive religious coping was insignificant (β = −.12, p = .10) (see Table 3). In review, increased positive religious coping directly correlated with lower depression scores. In contrast, higher negative religious coping predicted increased depression. A greater sense of belonging predicted lower depression scores, above and beyond the religious coping variables. Positive religious coping did not moderate a sense of belonging’s relationship with depression in the present study.

Table 3.

Hierarchical Regression Results (R², Change in R², Unstandardized B Weights, Standard Error, and Standardized β Weights) for Depressive Symptomology in Latinx Undergraduates.

Variable	B	SEB	β	R ²	ΔR²
Step 1				.02
Residential status (0 = no, 1 = yes)	0.2	0.94	.02
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	0.1	1.02	.01
Income	0.21	0.13	.12
Step 2				.27***	.25***
Residential status (0 = no, 1 = yes)	0.79	0.82	.07
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	0.47	0.89	.04
Income	0.26	0.12	.15*
RCOPE-positive	−0.25	0.06	−.30***
RCOPE-negative	0.36	0.06	.48***
Step 3				.36***	.09***
Residential status (0 = off, 1 = on)	9.89	0.78	.08
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	0.42	0.84	.03
Income	0.22	0.11	.13
RCOPE-positive	−0.21	0.05	−.24***
RCOPE-negative	0.36	0.05	.47***
Sense of belonging	−0.12	0.03	−.26***
SOB × RCOPE-positive interaction	−0.01	0.01	−.12

RCOPE-positive: positive religious coping; RCOPE-negative: negative religious coping; SOB: sense of belonging.

Residential status = coded 0: student lives off-campus; coded 1: student lives in university sponsored housing; SEB: the standard error of the computed value of b.

p < .05; ***p < .001.

Anxiety

The author conducted a hierarchical multiple regression to assess the relationship between positive and negative religious coping and a sense of belonging to anxiety. The researcher added the background variables (residential status, gender, and income) to the equation in Step 1 of the regression. After holding the background characteristics constant, the author added positive and negative religious coping to the regression in Step 2, contributing 21% to the variance in anxiety scores. In the final step, the researcher added sense of belonging and the interaction term (positive religious coping x a sense of belonging) to the equation. The results demonstrated that a sense of belonging directly affected anxiety. Furthermore, positive religious coping indirectly affected anxiety through a sense of belonging. In summary, the results of the hierarchical regression analysis found that the predictor variables accounted for a total of 29% of the variance in anxiety, F(7, 144) = 8.45, p < .001 (see Table 4). The overall final model found negative religious coping (β = .49, p < .001), a sense of belonging (β = −.16, p = .03), and the interaction term (positive religious coping x a sense of belonging; β = −.19, p = .02) predicted anxiety. In other words, greater negative religious coping correlated with increased anxiety. A sense of belonging directly affected anxiety, such that higher levels of belonging correlated with lower anxiety. Positive religious coping indirectly affected anxiety through a sense of belonging. The researcher conducted a simple slopes analysis to interpret the interaction effect between positive religious coping and a sense of belonging on anxiety. Results found that high positive religious coping and a high sense of belonging predicted lower anxiety levels. In contrast, low positive religious coping and a high sense of belonging did not affect anxiety scores (Figure 1).

Table 4.

Hierarchical Regression Results (R², Change in R², Unstandardized B Weights, Standard Error, and Standardized β Weights) for Anxious Symptomology in Latinx Undergraduates.

Variable	B	SEB	β	R ²	ΔR²
Step 1				.01
Residential status (0 = no, 1 = yes)	−0.21	0.82	−2
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	1.22	0.89	.11
Income	0.04	0.12	.03
Step 2				.22***	.21
Residential status (0 = no, 1 = yes)	0.3	0.74	.03
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	1.67	0.8	.15*
Income	0.1	0.11	.07
RCOPE-positive	−0.11	0.06	−.16*
RCOPE-negative	0.31	0.05	.47***
Step 3				.29***	.07
Residential status (0 = off, 1 = on)	0.2	0.73	.02
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	1.32	0.77	.14
Income	0.07	0.1	.04
RCOPE-positive	−0.11	0.06	−.14
RCOPE-negative	0.33	0.05	.49***
Sense of belonging	0.07	0.03	−.16*
SOB × RCOPE-positive interaction	−0.01	0.01	−.19*

RCOPE-positive: positive religious coping; RCOPE-negative: negative religious coping; SOB: sense of belonging.

Residential status = coded 0: student lives off-campus; coded 1: student lives in university sponsored housing; SEB: the standard error of the computed value of b.

p < .05; ***p < .001.

Figure 1.

Interaction effect of positive religious coping and a sense of belonging on anxiety.

Stress

The researcher conducted a third hierarchical multiple regression to assess the relationship between positive and negative religious coping and a sense of belonging on stress in Latinx undergraduates. After holding the background variables constant in Step 1, the researcher added the religious coping variables to Step 2, accounting for 19% of the variance in stress scores. In Step 3, the author added a sense of belonging to the equation. A sense of belonging failed to contribute to the overall equation. No interaction term was added to the equation since the direct effect was insignificant (Baron & Kenny, 1986). In sum, the final model found a total of 20% of the variance in stress levels related to the religious coping variables F(6, 148) = 6.49, p < .001. Both positive (β = −.18, p = .02) and negative religious coping (β = .44, p < .001) contributed to stress levels in Latinx undergraduates. A sense of belonging did not directly affect stress levels. In summary, high levels of positive religious coping correlated with lower stress levels, while negative religious coping predicted heightened stress levels (See Table 5). A sense of belonging failed to contribute to stress levels.

Table 5.

Hierarchical Regression Results (Change in R², Unstandardized B Weights, Standard Error, and Standardized β Weights) for Stress Symptomology in Latinx Undergraduates.

Variable	B	SEB	β	R ²	ΔR²
Step 1				.01
Residential status (0 = no, 1 = yes)	0.3	0.78	.03
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	0.45	0.84	.04
Income	0.11	0.11	.08
Step 2				.20***	.19
Residential status (0 = no, 1 = yes)	0.72	0.71	.08
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	0.84	0.76	.08
Income	0.15	0.1	.1
RCOPE-positive	−0.14	0.05	−.20**
RCOPE-negative	0.28	0.05	.44***
Step 3				.21***	0
Residential status (0 = off, 1 = on)	0.79	0.71	.08
Gender (0 = male, 1 = female)	0.84	0.76	.08
Income	0.14	0.1	.1
RCOPE-positive	−0.13	0.06	−.18*
RCOPE-negative	0.27	0.05	.44***
Sense of belonging	0.03	0.03	.07

RCOPE-positive: positive religious coping; RCOPE-negative: negative religious coping; SOB: sense of belonging.

Residential status = coded 0: student lives off-campus; coded 1: student lives in university sponsored housing; SEB: the standard error of the computed value of b.

p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001.

Discussion and Implications

In the present study, students’ reliance on positive religious coping had a direct effect on depression and stress and an indirect effect on anxiety. In support of prior research, the current study suggests that Latinx students may garner strength through their faith expressions that assist them in managing depression and stress (Chai et al., 2012; Dunn & O’Brien, 2009; Hovey, 2000). The present study supports prior research on Latinx individuals that found correlations between lower depression and suicidal ideation rates among those who implemented positive religious coping (Hovey, 2000). The current study also supports related research identifying positive religious coping’s predictive power in reducing symptoms of depression (Cetty et al., 2022; Mahamid & Bdier, 2021), anxiety (Cetty et al., 2022; Rosmarin et al., 2013) and perceived stress (Mahamid & Bdier, 2021) among diverse participants.

The present study results also found that negative religious coping predicted higher scores on all three mental health outcomes: depression, anxiety, and stress. The present study supports related research demonstrating that negative religious coping predicted depression and stress (Cetty et al., 2022). Generally speaking, coping strategies are meant to reduce suffering and provide techniques to reframe cognitions about stressful experiences (Pearlin, 1989). Instead, in the present study, negative religious coping correlated with feelings of despair, disillusionment, and frustration, even in the presence of high levels of belonging.

The present study answers a call for research that pairs religious coping with social-environmental factors, like a sense of belonging, among Latinx individuals (Chang et al., 2019; Cobb et al., 2017; Da Silva et al., 2017). The results suggest that both religious coping and a sense of belonging contributed directly to depression and indirectly to anxiety in Latinx undergraduates.

Current trends suggest that religion and comunidad (community) play an important role in the lives of Latinx individuals (Pew Research Center, 2022). Research highlights the integration of faith practices with engagement in a supportive community as an effective coping resource among Latinx undergraduates (Holloway-Friesen, 2022; Triana et al., 2020). Other research highlights Latinx students’ dependence on religious practices as central to managing everyday challenges that impact their overall affect, well-being, and interpersonal relationships (Holloway-Friesen, 2018, 2022). National data show that 75% of Latinx individuals practice some faith tradition, compared only 67% Whites, and 61% Asians (Pew Research Center, 2022). The only group that reports higher religious affiliation are Black/African Americans at 78% (Pew Research Center, 2022). Latinx students’ ability to leverage relational connections through shared spiritual traditions may add a layer of support in managing stressors related to depression, anxiety, and stress (Holloway-Friesen, 2022).

The present study’s findings support the sociological stress – process model’s notion that coping resources influence mental health markers (Pearlin, 1989). In review, the sociological stress-process model (Pearlin, 1989) examines how managing personal, social, and institutional factors successfully reduce the frequency and severity of stressors in an individual’s life. In support of the model, those Latinx undergraduates who incorporated positive religious coping may have found improved management of personal stressors, as noted in reductions in depression, anxiety, and stress. In addition, a sense of belonging supports the theory’s integration of students’ social connections and institutional support to mitigate stressors.

Implications

One striking insight from this study is the importance of vibrant spiritual life for many Latinx undergraduates and its role in depression, anxiety, and stress management. Universities and colleges should be places for students to expand academic and career knowledge and develop the interior aspects of Latinx students’ lives (Holloway-Friesen, 2022; Triana et al., 2020).

The study’s findings on positive religious coping and a sense of belonging suggest the potentially beneficial role religiously affiliated universities have for Latinx undergraduates and their mental health management. Student engagement practices that honor the sacred may potentially foster adaptive coping strategies for improved mental health among Latinx undergraduates (Holloway-Friesen, 2022; Triana et al., 2020). Research highlights Latinx students’ implementation of comunidad (community) to build academic and spiritual families on their college campuses (Chang et al., 2019; Holloway-Friesen, 2022). Evidence suggests that ethnic organizations provide spaces for students to express their spiritual identities and may also be safe places to practice culturally relevant religious practices (Holloway-Friesen, 2018b; Triana et al., 2020).

The study’s findings related to negative religious coping suggest that many students who implement negative religious coping may also experience heightened depression, anxiety, and stress. Negative religious coping often fosters inaccurate self-perceptions and punitive views of God (Benner, 2004; Hart et al., 2020). Scripture states that “the truth will set you free” (“English Standard Version Bible,” 2001, John 8:32). Unfortunately, many often believe lies and misconceptions about God and themselves, exacerbating mental anguish. For those suffering from depression, anxiety, and stress, misinterpreted Scripture may magnify their feelings of inadequacy and shame (Benner, 2004; Scazzero, 2006). Religiously affiliated therapists, college support staff, and faith leaders can assist students in reframing situations grounded in love and grace (Benner, 2004; Scazzero, 2006). These professionals can also help students perceive their suffering as a temporary wilderness that will eventually give way to one’s promised land. Wilderness experiences are often necessary. For many, times of spiritual exile produce a cleansing, reorientation, and equipping (Zarzycka & Zietek, 2018).

Limitations and future directions

Although the findings of this study lend insight into understanding factors contributing to Latinx undergraduate students’ coping strategies and overall mental health, it is important to recognize some limitations. First, the rates for depression and anxiety were slightly higher in this sample than the national average among college students (ACHA, 2019). These elevated rates of depression and anxiety may be attributed to the timing of the survey distribution, which was during the middle of the second semester. LeBlanc and Marques (2019) report that psychological distress rises steadily during the first semester and remains high throughout the second semester. Second, the study took place at a single institution that was religiously affiliated. Different results may emerge at secular institutions where students’ faith may be less pronounced or challenged. Next, a quarter of the sample indicated no religious preference. The present study did not compare the groups based on religious preference. The results between highly religious and non-religious Latinx students would likely differ. Future studies should explore the role of religious preference, religious coping, and mental health outcomes at different institutions.

Conclusion

Students’ mental health status impacts college student retention (ACHA, 2019). Research estimates that millions of students in the United States drop out of their post-secondary institutions due to psychiatric disorders, primarily depression and anxiety (ACHA, 2019). Increasingly, the role of spirituality and belonging are core features of Latinx college student adjustment and psychological well-being (Triana et al., 2020). The results of the present study offer insight into additional coping strategies that may support Latinx undergraduates’ mental health management, retention, and graduation rates.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Holly Holloway-Friesen

Author Biography

Holly Holloway-Friesen, Ph.D., proudly serves as an Associate Professor of Psychology at Azusa Pacific University. She has also served as the Director of the Bachelor of Arts in Psychology program at APU’s regional campuses. Her research focuses on college students’ sense of belonging, cultural and religious identities, and mental health. She lives in Southern California with her husband and two children.

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