Cads and Dads on Screen

Abstract

Two laboratory experiments were conducted to determine the effect of exposure to varying media representations of partner availability on the traits women found desirable in potential romantic and sexual partners. In each study, after watching media narratives featuring either an abundance or scarcity of male prospective sexual partners, women indicated their interest in hypothetical sexual partners with characteristics typical of the Cad (e.g., aggressive, promiscuous) or Dad (e.g. devoted, upright) for long-term and short-term relationships. Viewing any romantic narrative caused a decline in interest in a partner with Cad traits, particularly for a short-term relationship. Viewing romantic narratives in which romantic relationships were framed in terms of male abundance caused women with short-term relationship goals to be less interested in a partner with Dad traits; viewing the male scarcity trailers caused a similar reduction for women with long-term relationship goals.

Keywords

media effects movies sexual selection framing

Past research has documented a range of effects of nonexplicit sexual entertainment content on sexual outcomes (for a thorough review, see Ward, 2003). These effects include more permissive sexual attitudes (Bryant & Rockwell, 1994; Taylor, 2005, 2006), endorsement of sexual stereotypes (Ward, 2002; Ward & Friedman, 2006), and precocious sexual behavior among adolescents (Chandra et al., 2008; Collins et al., 2004). At least one recent study also found that media content can alter the traits sought in potential romantic or sexual partners. Taylor (2008) conducted an experiment in which young adult women read a magazine article about sex that discussed sex either in terms of sexual pleasure and enjoyment or sex in terms of its value to committed romantic relationships. After reading, those who read the enjoyment article expressed stronger interest in sexual partners with more aggressive, exciting traits; those who read the relationship article preferred traits including reliability and similarity. Whether similar effects are likely to occur in response to popular entertainment media has yet to be seen. The present study explores the ability of romantic comedies to alter the traits women find appealing in prospective romantic or sexual partners.

Partner Trait Preferences

Evolutionary theorists have suggested that women have evolved the tendency to seek out partners with different traits under varied circumstances in order to maximize the reproductive fitness of their offspring (Buss, 2003; Buss & Schmitt, 1993). Under some circumstances, such as in resource-scarce environments, women are expected to be attracted to a partner who has abundant resources and the inclination to reliably invest them in supporting children and their mother (Buss, 2003; Cashdan, 1997; Gangestad & Simpson, 2000). Important traits for such a partner are being nurturing, kind, and patient; individuals who express such traits have been referred to in the literature as “Dads” (Kruger, Fisher, & Jobling., 2003).

Other environmental conditions call for a mate with traits very different from the Dad’s. When, for example, resources are abundant, women are hypothesized to seek a partner who possesses traits that will ensure his offspring’s reproductive success. The reproductive strategy at play in such cases has sometimes been referred to as a “sexy sons” (Fisher, 1958) or “good genes” strategy (Haselton & Gangestad, 2005). Traits such as assertiveness, aggression, and physical attractiveness become more important (Cashdan, 1993; Kruger et al., 2003). Those who embody these traits, the so-called Cads, are likely to be short-term partners, as their reproductive strategy hinges on numerous partners and minimal subsequent investment in offspring. Cad partners are also more likely to be preferred during the most fertile periods of a woman’s reproductive cycle (Haselton & Gangestad, 2006). It is important to note that discussions or descriptions of a Cad–Dad dichotomy principally call attention to traits that may be expressed in varying combinations and to varying degrees. The Cad and Dad are archetypes; in reality, it is possible to exhibit traits of both the Cad and the Dad, being, for example, both assertive and patient, and to exhibit Cad or Dad traits to varying degrees.

One environmental factor that may affect partner trait preferences is the relative scarcity or abundance of potential partners. Although partner availability is often cited as a likely predictor of partner trait preferences (Buss, 2003, 2007), the nature of the effect of availability is unclear. In an environment with many possible reproductive partners, a woman can be more selective and seek out a partner with Dad traits; Pederson (1991) has observed that societies characterized by abundant males are typically characterized by long-term partnering strategies, thereby favoring Dad traits. On the other hand, with many available partners, she may feel able to select Cad traits with the knowledge that other partners will be available; women are more likely to engage in extrarelational sex if they feel they have a good chance of finding a better long-term partner, thereby favoring the Cad (Greiling & Buss, 2000). If few reproductive partners are available, securing a Dad is less likely, so selecting a partner that can provide good genes for future generations (i.e., one with Cad traits) may be a more desirable alternative. On the other hand, scarce partners may also increase interest in securing a partner in a long-term relationship, making Dad traits more appealing. Which set of traits women tend to prioritize, then, may vary based on the relative availability or scarcity of appropriate male partners or, more accurately, the perception of that availability or scarcity; the direction of such an effect, should it exist, is unclear.

Tales of romance in the media often focus on partner scarcity and abundance; competition over potential romantic partners is, for example, a theme common to romantic comedies. A quick review of recent and notable romantic comedies yields numerous instances of films in which multiple women compete for the attention and affection of a single man, such as The Wedding Planner (Shankman, 2001) and 27 Dresses (Fletcher, 2008). In other films of the genre, multiple men compete for the attention and affection of a single woman, or a woman must choose among multiple romantic options, such as While You Were Sleeping (Turteltaub, 1995) and When Harry Met Sally (Reiner, 1989). Such “love triangles” are also common elements of soap opera plots. Given the influence of entertainment media content on other sexual outcomes, it is worth considering whether such representations may affect the traits women seek in prospective romantic or sexual partners due to the representation of partner abundance or scarcity.

Theoretical Rationale

There are theoretical reasons to expect that representations of romantic relationships in the media, and particularly depictions of partner abundance or scarcity, may affect partner trait preferences among viewers. Specifically, framing research is applicable. Frames are attributes of a text or narrative that suggest an appropriate interpretation or understanding of an event or piece of information. For example, the issue of poverty can be framed as a societal problem or an individual one (Iyengar, 1990), or sexual activity can be framed in terms of personal pleasure or relationships facilitation (Durham, 1996; Taylor, 2008). Past research has found that frames can guide how readers or viewers think about issues with subsequent effects on attitudes and behaviors (Price, Tewksbury, & Powers, 1997; Zillmann, Chen, Knobloch, & Callison, 2004). These effects likely occur as the frame makes a particular set of cognitions more accessible for or more likely to be deemed applicable to subsequent decision making (see Domke, McCoy, & Torres, 1999; Price & Tewksbury, 1997).

Although most research on framing has focused on responses to factual presentations of information, entertainment content can and does frame issues, events, and information. For example, organ donation is often framed in medical dramas and soap operas in competing ways, either as a benevolent act of charity or as part of a morally corrupt system, with the alleged effect of impaired public support for organ donation (Morgan, Harrison, Chewning, Davis, & DiCorcia, 2007). In one television drama with primarily adolescent protagonists, alcohol use is often framed as either an avenue for escape or a social obligation (Van den Bulck, Simons, & Van Gorp, 2008). As frames seem to exert their influence largely at a nonconscious level (Takemura, 1992, 1993), there is no reason to believe that the mere fact that a text is fictional will eliminate framing effects.

Romantic narratives in entertainment media tend to frame sex relationally rather than recreationally or procreationally. In romantic comedies, for example, sexual relationships are best when they are within the context of a long-term, committed romantic relationship or help a couple move toward such a relationship. Happily ever after, in a romantic comedy, means commitment or marriage. Past research has found that relational frames can lead to greater interest among women in long-term partnering and Dad traits among partners, and possibly to a reduction in interest in Cad traits (Taylor, 2008), at least relative to recreational frames. It was expected that viewing romantic narratives in the media might result in the activation of commitment-related interpretive frameworks among female viewers. With this in mind, it was hypothesized that:

Hypothesis 1: Women who view a romantic narrative will express greater interest in Dad traits and long-term relationships.

Hypothesis 2: Women who view a romantic narrative will express diminished interest in Cad traits and short-term relationships.

Seeing media representations of sexual or romantic relationships that are framed in terms of scarce or abundant potential partners may alter how women think about such relationships. Seeing romantic or sexual relationships framed in terms of female competition over scarce male partners may lead to cognitions pertaining to male scarcity becoming more accessible and more likely to be used in decision making, including decisions about what potential partners to pursue or of which traits to be mindful when considering a potential partner. Because of a lack of clarity in the theorizing about the effects of perceived partner scarcity on partner trait preferences, however, it is uncertain what effects such perceptions are likely to have.

Research on the effects of media on perceptions of social reality may also have bearing on the effects of depictions of partner scarcity or abundance. Research has documented that heavy television viewers’ perceptions of the social world more closely echo the social world of television than light viewers in a range of domains, including ideal body shape (Harrison, 2003) and the frequency of a wide range of sexual behaviors (Aubrey, Harrison, Kramier, & Yelin, 2003; Buerkel-Rothfull & Strouse, 1993; Ward, 2002). Recent research has identified likely cognitive processes, such as employment of an availability heuristic, underlying these effects (Shrum, 2001, 2007). These processes could apply to perceptions of available romantic or sexual partners. Women viewing media programming in which male romantic partners are scarce may come to perceive such partners as actually scarce. Even making cognitions pertaining to such scarcity more accessible would make this more likely.

Based on the above reasoning, it is reasonable to expect that partner scarcity or abundance will affect partner trait preferences. However, the direction of that influence is unclear. Therefore, the following research questions are posed:

Research Question 1: How will viewing romantic narratives in which romantic relationships are framed in terms of male partner scarcity affect interest in Cad- and Dad-related traits in prospective romantic and sexual partners?

Research Question 2: How will viewing romantic narratives in which romantic relationships are framed in terms of male partner abundance affect interest in Dad- and Cad-related traits in prospective romantic and sexual partners?

Any such effects are also likely to be limited or moderated by viewers’ existing cognitions. Inasmuch as framing effects are a function of accessibility or applicability of existing cognitions, the nature of those cognitions will moderate the effects of framing romantic or sexual relationships on partner trait preferences. For example, individuals who consider Cad traits to be acceptable or even necessary elements of masculinity are likely to have more and more positive cognitions that can be activated in response to frames of male scarcity. A strong commitment to or desire for a long-term romantic partnership, on the other hand, is likely to be accompanied by relatively more or more accessible cognitions pertaining to the Dad traits associated with ideal long-term partners. Thus it is hypothesized as follows:

Hypothesis 3: The effects of representations of partner scarcity or abundance representations will be moderated by perceptions of normative masculinity and relationship goals.

Finally, in any consideration of partner trait selection by women, the question of fertility must also be considered. Some past research has indicated an association between a preference for Cad-related traits and the fertile portion of women’s ovulatory cycle (Kruger et al., 2003) although this association has not been observed uniformly (Taylor, 2008). Given the ambiguous evidence, however, fertility should be taken into account in any study of women’s partner trait preferences.

Study 1

Method

Sample

Participants were 120 (age M = 20.76, SD = 1.34) women enrolled in undergraduate communication courses at a large, West-coast university. Participants participated in a study of “media preferences” in exchange for a small amount of extra credit. Two participants identified themselves in the questionnaire as homosexual; due to the nature of the hypotheses, data from these participants were not included in analyses.

Procedure

After reading and signing an informed consent document, participants completed measures of demographics, relationship status and goals, perceptions of normative masculinity, and several filler questions designed to mask the purpose of the study. Participants then viewed a series of trailers for two major motion pictures that did not, at least in their trailers, emphasize romantic relationships, sex, or stereotypical gender roles. Participants in the experimental groups saw two additional trailers that constituted the experimental manipulation. After each trailer, participants were given 30 seconds to rate their familiarity with the film, enjoyment of the trailer, and interest in seeing the advertised film. After viewing all trailers, participants completed measures of partner trait preference interspersed with filler tasks designed to mask the purpose of the study and were debriefed and dismissed.

Stimuli

Experimental stimuli were trailers for motion pictures for recent or future movies. The trailers were selected for inclusion based on two key characteristics. First, they had to clearly depict competition or indecision pertaining to the selection of a romantic or sexual partner. Second, the movie each trailer advertised had to have that competition or indecision as a central plot element. Two trailers were used for each experimental condition to increase generalizability of any findings. Participants in the male scarcity condition saw a trailer for Hope Springs (Herman, 2003) and My Best Friend’s Wedding (Hogan, 1997), whereas participants in the male abundance condition watched a trailer for Win a Date with Tad Hamilton (Luketic, 2004) and Picture Perfect (Caron, 1997). Pretesting with participants drawn from the same population as the study sample found the trailers in the two conditions to be comparable in the degree to which they were enjoyable, romantic, and interesting. Pretesting also indicated that the male scarcity trailers were perceived as more appropriately described as about “two women romantically pursuing one man” than the male abundance trailers, which were, in turn, more perceived as more appropriately described as about “two men romantically pursuing one woman” than the female abundance trailers. Order of the two trailers was varied, but no differences on any outcomes for trailer order were observed, so order of stimuli was excluded from analysis.

Partner trait preferences

Partner trait preferences were assessed with an abbreviated version of the measure used by Kruger and colleagues (2003; also see Taylor, 2008). Participants were presented with two descriptions of protagonists from romantic literature, one who clearly exemplified Cad traits (e.g., “bold,” “daring,” “coarse”), the other of which exemplified Dad traits (e.g., “compassionate,” “moral,” honest). After reading each, participants were asked to imagine the individual in the description was a real person, and to indicate their interest in a brief fling, a short-term relationship, and a long-term relationship with the individual on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (very much). Interest in a brief fling and short-term relationship were averaged to form a measure of interest in a short-term relationship (STR) with each of the two men (see Table 1 for descriptive data for all measures). Responses to the long-term relationship item were taken as an indicator of interest in a long-term relationship with each of the two men. Interest in each set of traits in a prospective partner was expected to take the form of increased interest in a relationship with the character selected to embody those traits.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Key Measures for Study 1 and Study 2

			Control	Male abundance	Male scarcity
	Measure	Reliability	n = 37	n = 40	n = 41
Study 1	STR with Cad	r = .72	3.78 (1.76)	2.30 (1.47)	2.51 (1.69)
	LTR with Cad		2.43 (1.54)	1.88 (1.28)	1.80 (1.27)
	STR with Dad	r = .62	3.34 (0.96)	2.96 (1.19)	2.96 (1.81)
	LTR with Dad		4.11 (1.71)	4.55 (1.86)	4.63 (1.79)
	Superficial traits		9.8% (6.5%)	15.4% (8.7%)	10.9% (9.1%)
	Cad beliefs (8-item)	α = .87	19.43 (3.00)	18.30 (4.24)	18.88 (3.99)
	Relationship goal		4.57 (1.74)	5.15 (1.82)	4.27 (2.14)
Study 2			n = 36	n = 58	n = 58
	STR with Cad	r = .63	3.97 (2.36)	2.84 (1.77)	2.43 (1.58)
	LTR with Cad		1.86 (1.41)	1.93 (1.40)	1.79 (1.22)
	STR with Dad	r = .39	4.42 (1.18)	4.90 (1.47)	4.76 (1.48)
	LTR with Dad		4.97 (1.37)	4.78 (1.71)	4.22 (1.50)
	Superficial traits		12.1% (13%)	17.7% (12%)	19.5% (14%)
	Cad beliefs (3-item)	α = .69	3.21 (0.55)	3.22 (0.56)	3.00 (0.65)
	Relationship goal		6.42 (1.94)	6.52 (1.68)	6.97 (2.04)

Note: STR = short-term relationship; LTR = long-term relationship.

Although physical appearance or attractiveness is not necessarily a Cad- or Dad-related trait, past research has found that the importance of physical appearance of partners also varies across situations and the reproductive cycle (Kruger et al., 2003; Taylor, 2008). Inasmuch as physical attractiveness is reflective of health and fitness, attractiveness has been associated with the “good genes” strategy that also favors Cad traits (Regan & Berscheid, 1999). Therefore, in addition to measures of Cad and Dad trait interest, participants were asked to describe their ideal sexual or romantic partner by completing up to 15 statements that began with the root “He is . . .” (see Taylor, 2008). The importance of superficial physical attributes in a potential partner was assessed as the number of superficial traits (e.g., tall, handsome, my height, brown eyes) were counted for each participant by a female undergraduate research assistant blind to experimental condition. Reliability was checked as the author performed the same count for 20 randomly selected participants; all disagreements were found to stem from different interpretations of a single word (i.e., “sexy”), which was subsequently counted as superficial. The total number of traits listed by each participant was also counted and a percentage score calculated.

Potential moderators

Perception of Cad traits as normatively masculine was measured using Pleck, Sonenstein, and Ku’s (1993) measure of masculine ideology. The measure invites participants to respond to eight statements reflective of stereotypically masculine traits that are consistent with Cad traits (e.g., “A young man should be physically tough, even if he’s not big,” and “Men are always ready for sex.”) on a 4-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = strongly agree). Scores were summed to create a single score reflective of the belief that men do and should exhibit Cad traits, hereafter referred to as Cad beliefs.

Relationship goals were measured as participants were asked to indicate what type of relationship they were interested in pursuing “right now” on a 10-point scale in which 1 indicated a short-term sexual relationship (e.g., one-night stand) and 10 reflected a long-term, steady romantic and sexual relationship (e.g., living together or married). Based on this response, participants were coded as interested in a short-term relationship if their score was 1 through 5 (n = 56), and a long-term relationship if their score was 6 through 10 (n = 64).

Fertility was measured as, as part of what was ostensibly a separate, health-related study, participants were asked to identify how many days previous to the study their most recent menstrual period had begun. Participants were identified as being in the portion of their reproductive cycle most conducive to conception if their response was between 7 and 14 days, the period during which women on average are most likely to conceive (n = 37, or 31%; see Taylor, 2008; Wilcox, Weinberg, & Baird, 1995).

Results

Response to and familiarity with experimental stimuli

To explore the possibility of differential familiarity with or perceptions of the advertised movies and enjoyment of the trailers themselves, t tests were conducted. This was done to determine whether these factors needed to be included in further analyses. No significant differences were observed in whether participants had seen the advertised movies, t (77) = 1.03, ns, enjoyment of the trailers, t (79) = .96, ns, or perception that the movies advertised by the trailers were likely to be romantic, t (81) = 1.36, ns.

Interest in the Cad

To examine the effect of experimental condition on interest in a partner with Cad traits, a three-way mixed ANOVA was conducted with hypothetical relationship type (short-term or long-term) as a within-subjects factor and experimental condition and Cad beliefs (high vs. low Cad beliefs) as between-subjects factors. Fertility was also entered as a covariate. A significant main effect of hypothetical relationship type was observed, F(1, 111) = 34.51, p < .001, reflective of greater interest in a short-term relationship (M = 2.84, SD = 1.56) than a long-term relationship (M = 1.99, SD = 1.34) with the Cad. In addition, a main effect of experimental condition was observed, F = (2, 111) = 7.58, p < .001; post hoc comparisons with Bonferroni correction indicated that interest in the Cad was lower for participants in both the male abundance condition (M = 2.04, SD = 1.36) and the male scarcity condition (M =2.10, SD = 1.28) when compared to participants in the control condition (M = 3.11, SD = 1.34).

The effect of experimental condition on interest in the Cad, however, was moderated by an interaction with hypothetical relationship type. Post hoc comparisons within each relationship type revealed that experimental condition had no significant effect on interest in an LTR; instead, only interest in an STR with the Cad was affected, being significantly lower among participants in both romantic comedy conditions than among those in the control group.

Interestingly, the three-way interaction was also significant, F(2, 111) = 7.13, p < .001. Comparisons were conducted only across experimental groups within high and low Cad beliefs participants for interest in an STR. For participants low in Cad beliefs, each movie condition produced less interest in an STR with the Cad than the control condition. However, among women high in Cad beliefs, only participants in the male abundance condition were less interested in an STR with the Cad than participants in the control group; participants in the male scarcity condition were in between and different from neither. Among women high in Cad beliefs, seeing a romantic comedy that employed a male scarcity frame did not diminish interest in an STR with the Cad (see Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Interest in a relationship with a short-term relationship with a literary Cad based on Cad beliefs and experimental condition; from Study 1

Fertility did not significantly predict interest in the Cad.

Interest in the Dad

The same analytic strategy employed for interest in the Cad was employed to explore the effects of framing in romantic comedies on interest in Dad traits, with one exception. Instead of Cad beliefs, which were expected to be largely irrelevant to interest in Dad traits, having a long-term relationship goal was employed as the second between-subjects factor, based on the expectation that women with a long-term relationship goal would be more oriented toward the traits typically sought in long-term partners. A main effect of relationship was again observed, F(1, 111) = 5.88, p < .05, reflective of greater interest in an LTR with the Dad (M = 3.97, SD = 1.84) than an STR with the Dad (M = 3.22, SD = 1.52). No other main effects were observed.

The interaction between condition and relationship goal was significant, however, F(2, 111) = 7.80, p < .001. Post hoc comparisons across conditions within each relationship goal indicated that, among participants with short-term relationship goals, those in the male abundance condition were less interested in the Dad for any relationship than those in either the control group or the male scarcity group. Among participants with long-term relationship goals, those in the male scarcity condition were less interested in the Dad than those in either the control or the male abundance group (see Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Interest in a relationship with the Dad as predicted by participant relationship goals and experimental condition; from Study 1

Fertility was also found to be a significant predictor of interest in a relationship with the Dad, F(1, 111) = 8.88, p < .01. Participants in the fertile portion of their ovulatory cycle expressed greater interest in a relationship with the Dad. As the interaction term with relationship type was not significant, this interest occurred regardless of the nature of the hypothetical relationship.

Superficial traits

The degree to which participants valued superficial appearance was evaluated with an ANOVA with condition, relationship goal, and their interaction as factors and the percentage of superficial traits listed in the open response trait listing task as the dependent variable. As with all other analyses, fertility was a covariate. A main effect of experimental condition was observed, F(2, 111) = 4.98, p < .01, such that participants in the male abundance condition placed more emphasis on superficial traits when listing ideal partner traits (M = 16%, SD = 8.81%) than participants in the control condition (M = 9.0%, SD = 8.50%). Participants in the male scarcity condition placed significantly less emphasis on superficial traits (M = 11%, SD = 8.32%) than participants in the male abundance condition, but not more than participants in the control condition. Fertility was not a significant predictor of the importance of superficial traits in an ideal romantic and sexual partner.

Brief Discussion

Exposure to entertainment media content was found to affect partner trait preferences. These effects occurred in the context of associations between relationship types and collections of partner traits; Cad traits were found to be more appealing when considering a short-term relationship partner, and Dad traits were found to be more appealing when considering a long-term partner.

In general, participants who saw any romantic narrative became less interested in an individual with Cad traits, with the exception of women who endorse Cad traits and who saw relationships framed in terms of male scarcity. For women high in Cad beliefs, this lack of effect may suggest that the male protagonist in the male scarcity condition may have been less appealing to women high in Cad beliefs. The typical hero in a romantic comedy, after all, tends to be more Dad than Cad; women who tended to see Cads as masculine may have found the Dad hero less appealing and thus less likely to affect their thoughts about desirable partners.

Interest in a relationship with the Dad was also affected by viewing condition, an effect moderated by relationship goals. Women with STR goals who saw romance framed in terms of male abundance became less interested in Dad traits, whereas women with LTR goals were largely unaffected by the same content. Women with LTR goals, on the other hand, who saw romantic partnering framed in terms of male scarcity found the Dad less appealing, whereas women with STR goals were unaffected.

Seeing relationships framed in terms of abundant male partners caused women to focus more on superficial characteristics when describing their ideal romantic and sexual partner. When women see potential partners as more readily accessible, they apparently focus more on appearance. This may be reflective of an increased tendency toward a good-genes strategy; by selecting more physically attractive partners, they increase the likely attractiveness of future sons, and thereby increase the likely number of offspring. A more cognitive explanation, however, also presents itself. It may simply be that seeing attractive men activates cognitions pertaining to physically desirable traits. The male abundance condition depicted a greater number of attractive men, which may have provided more participants with exposure to a man that closely matched their own physical ideal.

A second study was designed to address several limitations of Study 1. First, although familiarity with the romantic comedies did not vary significantly across experimental conditions, that familiarity was relatively high. Other elements of the narratives of the movies themselves may have also exerted an influence on the outcome; the presence of popular, well-known male actors as protagonists (e.g. Colin Firth, Kevin Bacon) may also have exerted an influence. Study 2 addressed this limitation by selecting narratives from media programming with which American audiences were less likely to be familiar, specifically a soap opera from the United Kingdom. Second, the affective tone of the romantic comedies was generally positive; competing over a mate or being the object of such competition was depicted as a challenge, but not, within the stimulus trailer itself, a source of pain or serious distress. Although this may be typical of romantic comedies, it is not necessarily true of other types of media content. Therefore, in Study 2, narratives that were ambiguous in their affective tone and in which both male and female characters showed distress and uncertainty as a result of the romantic competition were selected. Finally, the possibility that the effects observed for listing superficial traits were principally attributable to a greater number of attractive models in the male abundance condition was addressed by selecting content with less attractive male characters.

Study 2

Method

Participants

Participants were 152 (age M = 21.16, SD = 1.99) undergraduate women enrolled in introductory public speaking courses at a major West-coast university. Recruitment methods and procedures were similar to those employed in Study 1.

Stimuli

In lieu of watching several movie trailers, participants in Study 2 watched a narrative constructed from several clips from the U.K. soap opera East Enders. This particular program was selected due to its unfamiliarity among U.S. viewers as well as its long broadcast history and commensurate plethora of story lines. Two 10-minute narratives were created by editing together multiple scenes from the same story line. Participants in the male abundance condition watched segments that told of two male characters pursuing the same woman. Both flirt with her, but one acts more aggressively and confidently, securing her attention and affection and resulting in a wedding. The other male character ultimately interrupts the wedding to protest his love. The segment ends with the woman still uncertain as to what course of action she will take. Participants in the male scarcity condition watched segments that portrayed two women arguing over one man; one woman is his estranged wife, the other his most recent romantic partner. The final segment depicts a physical confrontation between the two women that ends in injury, but leaves open the question of which woman will secure the man’s affections. As with Study 1, pretests indicated that each sequence was perceived to depict competition by two members of one sex over one member of the opposite sex.

Measures

Study 2 largely employed the same measures as Study 1. One addition was that participants in the experimental conditions were asked to rate the attractiveness of the male and female characters in each love triangle on a 5-point scale. Also, an abbreviated, 3-item version of the Cad-Beliefs scale was used (see Table 1 for descriptive statistics on all measures).

Analytic strategies also echoed those employed in Study 1.

Results

Response to and familiarity with experimental stimuli

Participants did not differ in their familiarity with the program (only one individual in each experimental condition had ever seen the program from which the narratives were drawn) or enjoyment, t(114) = .293, ns; M = 2.66, SD = 1.25 and M = 2.59, SD = 1.29, respectively. Characters were perceived to be only very modestly attractive; female characters in the male scarcity condition were judged to be slightly more physically attractive (M = 2.77, SD = 1.04) than were their counterparts in the male abundance condition (M = 2.38, SD = 1.04), t(116) = 2.01, p < .05, and the male character in the male scarcity condition was judged to be less attractive (M = 1.48, SD = .93) than his counterparts in the male abundance condition (M = 1.86, SD = .91), t(100) = 2.10, p < .05.

Interest in the Cad

A significant main effect of hypothetical relationship type was observed, F(1, 137) = 45.40, p < .001, reflective of greater interest in a short-term relationship (M = 3.04, SD = 1.78) than a long-term relationship (M = 1.86, SD = 1.35) with the Cad.

The main effect of experimental condition on interest in the Cad was marginally significant, F(2, 137) = 2.94, p < .10). Post hoc comparisons adjusting for multiple comparisons indicated no significant differences. However, the interaction between condition and relationship type was also significant, F(2, 137) = 7.82, p < .01. Post hoc examination indicated that, for a brief affair with the Cad, experimental condition mattered; participants in each experimental condition expressed significantly less interest in a brief sexual affair with the Cad (M = 2.74, SD = 1.90, and M = 2.54, SD = 1.83, respectively) than did participants in the control condition (M = 3.84, SD = 1.98). Interest in a long-term relationship with the Cad was uniformly low, (M = 1.88, SD = 1.50, M = 1.89, SD = 1.43, and M = 1.81, SD = 1.41, respectively). The three-way interaction was also marginally significant, F(2, 129) = 2.47, p < .10, but post hoc comparison yielded no significant comparisons.

Interest in the Dad

No main effect of relationship type or of experimental condition was observed. The interaction between experimental condition and desiring a long-term relationship was significant, F(2, 145) = 4.20, p < .05, but post hoc comparisons across conditions indicated only marginally significant differences. The three-way interaction was also, however, significant, F(2, 145) = 7.20, p < .01. Post hoc comparisons across conditions among participants with common relationship goals revealed two findings. First, there was no significant effect of condition on interest in a short-term relationship with the Dad. Interest in a long-term relationship, however, was predicted by the intersection of experimental condition and relationship goals (see Figure 3). Among participants with short-term relationship goals, those in the male abundance condition were less interested in a relationship with the Dad than those in the control condition. Among participants with long-term relationship goals, those in the male scarcity condition expressed less interest in a relationship with the Dad than participants in either the control or the male abundance conditions.

Figure 3.

Interest in a long-term relationship with the Dad as predicted by participant relationship goals and experimental condition; from Study 2

A main effect for fertility was also observed, F(1, 145) = 5.27, p < .05; participants in the fertile portion of their menstrual cycle were more interested in a relationship with the Dad than other participants. This was true regardless of relationship type.

Superficial traits

A main effect for experimental condition was observed, F(2, 145) = 3.54, p < .05, such that participants in the male scarcity condition listed a significantly higher percentage of superficial traits for an ideal romantic partner than did participants in the control condition. Participants in the male abundance condition listed a greater percentage of superficial traits than did participants in the control condition, but this only approached significance. Fertility was not a significant predictor of the importance of superficial traits in an ideal romantic and sexual partner.

Brief Discussion

The results of Study 2 largely echoed those of Study 1. Exposure to either experimental condition resulted in a decline in interest in a short-term relationship with the Cad. This effect was not moderated by Cad beliefs as was observed in Study 1, however.

The influence of partner scarcity or abundance on interest in the Dad also echoed the pattern observed in Study 1. Among individuals with short-term relationship goals, interest in the Dad was diminished for those who viewed a soap opera narrative that framed romantic relationships in terms of male abundance. Among individuals with long-term relationship goals, interest in the Dad was diminished for those who viewed a soap opera narrative that framed such relationships in terms of male scarcity. Unlike Study 1, however, these results were observed only for interest in a long-term relationship with the Dad. Importantly, this is the type of relationship typically associated with Dad traits.

Participants in each experimental condition placed greater emphasis on superficial traits when listing traits for an ideal romantic and sexual partner than participants in the control condition. In Study 1, the effect was limited to a single condition. A possible explanation is that the male characters in the romantic narratives were perceived by participants to be relatively unattractive, activating or emphasizing existing cognitions pertaining to attractiveness as a necessary characteristic for romantic partners.

Overall Discussion

Within the context of the present experiments, exposure to entertainment media content did affect partner trait preferences. Those effects were constrained, however, by an underlying pattern linking partner traits with the type of relationship being considered. Consistent with past research, Cad traits were found to be more appealing when considering a short-term relationship partner, and Dad traits were found to be more appealing when considering a long-term partner. This underscores the existence of variation in partner trait preferences under varied circumstances—there is no one “ideal” partner type, but different types of ideal partners under different circumstances. Exposure to romantic narratives and their framing of romantic relationships, however, also affected the traits women found appealing in hypothetical potential partners.

First, across both studies, viewing romantic narratives caused participants to become less interested in relationship with an individual with Cad traits, particularly a short-term relationship. For most women, the framing of sexual coupling in terms of long-term relationships was likely so salient that the relative abundance or scarcity of potential partners for such relationships was irrelevant.

Second, women’s interest in a relationship with the Dad varied based on their own relationship goals and the way romantic relationships were framed in the movie trailers they viewed. In general, for women with STR goals, seeing romance framed in terms of abundant male partners led to diminished interest in a partner with Dad traits; seeing romance framed in terms of scarce partners had no effect, however. This may reflect increased selectivity—the traits may be of unchanging import, but the individual perceived to have the traits may seem like a less appealing “catch” if more options are available. This explanation is consistent with the observation that there was no increase in the importance of Cad traits for participants in the same condition. Interestingly, this finding was observed for interest in a relationship with the Dad in general, not in a particular relationship type (i.e., long-term or short-term) for participants in Study 1, but only for interest in a long-term relationship in Study 2.

For women with long-term relationship goals, seeing romantic partnering framed in terms of male scarcity made the Dad less appealing. Again, it is interesting to note that this effect was not echoed by an increase in interest in Cad traits. Women with long-term relationship goals were expected to find Dad traits to be most appealing. It is possible that, for women with long-term relationship goals, the relative scarcity of potential partners underscores the importance of finding a particularly good partner, making the literary Dad less appealing not because his traits aren’t desirable but because the evaluative bar has been raised. Again, in Study 2, this effect was only observed for interest in a long-term relationship with the Dad.

Because data were collected from different samples with distinct characteristics, the cause of the differences between the results in Study 1 and Study 2 cannot be attributed with certainty to content differences. Nevertheless, exposure to the unfamiliar, affectively ambiguous content produced more focused results; the moderating role of desired relationship status became more important. The manipulation in Study 2, by employing unknown actors, an unknown story, and an uncertain affective tone may have constituted a more “pure” manipulation of the key construct. Main effects of relationship type demonstrated an association between Dad traits and long-term relationships, and past research has suggested that media effects on interest in Dad traits are largely limited to long-term relationships (Taylor, 2008), consistent with the findings of Study 2. The broader, anomalous findings in Study 1 may therefore reflect familiarity with the story arc of romantic comedies—that even casual romantic partners often become long-term partners or spouses.

The importance of moderators in the effects of framing romantic relationships on partner trait preferences is particularly noteworthy, as it suggests an important role of cognition in the relationship between environment and partner trait preferences. The influence of media framing of romantic and sexual relationships depends on what has already been learned and decided about those partners. This should not be interpreted as minimizing the role of media influence, however. The present study reported on the effects of a single, brief exposure to a commonly occurring frame; moderators may play less of a role on the effects of repeated exposure such as is likely to occur among heavy media users. In fact, mass media collectively constitute an important source of sexual information for young people (Bielay & Herold, 1995; Triese & Gotthoffer, 2002). Furthermore, if sexual attitudes and beliefs are learned from media content over time, then a relatively greater degree of consonance between the media frames and existing cognitions might be expected.

Third, depictions of partner scarcity or abundance were observed to affect the relative importance of superficial traits listed for an ideal romantic or sexual partner, but in ways that differed across the two experiments. Whereas in Study 1 participants in the male abundance condition placed more emphasis on superficial traits, in Study 2, participants in the male scarcity condition did so. It should be noted, however, that in Study 2 it was the male scarcity condition that produced the lowest ratings of attractiveness for male characters, which were rated at just above “not at all” attractive. Whereas exposure to many attractive male figures in Study 1 seemed to lead to greater emphasis on the importance of superficial traits, exposure to relatively unattractive male figures in romantic roles seems to have resulted in the same effect. This may reflect a general set of cognitions relating to attractiveness and romantic relationships activated by the depiction of those that clearly uphold or violate those expectations.

Findings were also notable for the general lack of influence of fertility on partner trait preferences. Although past research has identified a link between fertility and an increased emphasis on physical appearance in selecting partners (Haselton & Gangestad, 2006; Kruger et al., 2003), no such effect was observed in the present study. In fact, the only effect of fertility was on interest in the Dad, and, contrary to expectations, interest in the Dad was greater among women in the fertile period of their ovulatory cycle. Also interesting is that this effect was not limited to interest in either long-term or short-term relationships. One possible explanation is that women in the present study were principally oriented toward Dad traits overall, and peak fertility served primarily to increase interest in a sexual relationship with the type of partner they were most likely to favor. This is consistent with past findings that women prefer romantically unattached men even for casual sexual encounters because, even for such encounters, the possibility of acquiring a long-term partner is present (Buss, 2003).

The overall pattern of findings can be understood in terms of a framing-accessibility account of media influence. Viewing romantic comedies of both sorts resulted in diminished interest in a partner with Cad traits, consistent with the notion that the romantic plotlines activated or made accessible cognitions pertaining to long-term partnering. This effect was limited to interest in a short-term relationship, consistent with the notion that the frames are not creating new cognitions, but activating those that already exist. Inasmuch as Cad traits are generally associated with partners for STRs, activating cognitions about them should primarily influence cognitions pertaining to such relationships. Interestingly, the same did not hold true for Dad traits, interest in which was affected regardless of hypothetical relationship state. This may reflect a general preponderance of preferences for Dad traits across relationship types. If such is the case, then cognitions about partners for any type of sexual relationship would be expected to be linked to cognitions about Dad traits. In fact, past research on partner trait preferences is consistent with this explanation (Taylor, 2008).

Whether the observed effects could also be attributable to an effect of exposure to depictions of partner scarcity on perceptions of the actual availability of appropriate romantic or sexual partners is uncertain. Making such a claim would require, at the very least, evidence that such a perception at least partially mediated the observed causal relationships. Future research would benefit from adding a measure of perceived availability of romantic sexual and romantic partners.

Yet more broadly, these findings add to a growing body of evidence that emphasizes contributions of culture to sexual decision making. Although most research in the area of partner trait preferences and the related area of mating strategies focuses on biological imperatives, culture cannot be discounted. After all, the ability to respond with varied preferences and strategies in complex and changing ways to one’s environment is increased through cognition.

Although the present findings reflect what is likely a short-term impact on partner trait preferences, there are potential longer term consequences. For example, the activation of a particular partner preference script may affect media content preferences, which would then in turn reinforce the activation of that script. A similar pattern, referred to as a downward spiral, has been documented for violent media content and aggressiveness (Slater, Henry, Swaim, & Anderson, 2003).

Limitations

A number of key limitations must be recognized. One caveat, of course, is that the present study employed not romantic comedies in their entirety, but trailers for such movies. On the one hand, this may be seen as strengthening the argument that such movies will produce the observed effects; if a 3-minute trailer can alter partner trait preferences, how much more so might a hundred-plus-minute movie? On the other hand, most romantic comedies likely include a resolution in which the female protagonist secures a long-term relationship with partner possessing Dad traits. Trailers are designed to develop a sense of suspense and therefore focus on conflict and competition rather than resolution. And, of course, only a handful of trailers were used; future research may benefit from measuring actual exposure to romantic comedies rather than manipulating exposure in order to check for external validity and generalizability.

Second, although past research has employed self-reported menstrual timing as an indicator of fertility, more precise measures exist, such as basal body temperature or shifts in serum hormone levels (Buss, 2003). Perhaps one of these more precise measures of fertility would have revealed an influence of fertility on partner trait preferences. Alternately, biological fertility may be a stronger predictor of more automatic, nonconscious trait preferences, such as preferences for facial symmetry or particular scents (Buss, 2003). Fertility may affect cognition pertaining to partner choice less than it affects such instinctive responses.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Bio

Laramie D. Taylor, PhD, University of Michigan, is an assistant professor in the Communication Department at the University of California Davis.

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