“Managing the Migration From Military to Civil Society”

Introduction to Resettlement of Veterans

The Indian Armed Forces, with a strength of over a million active personnel, is among the largest military force in the world. In order to keep a youthful profile, each year more than 55,000 to 70,000 personnel of the army, air force, and navy are released from the services (Kishore, 1991, p. 24; Phadatare, 2003; Rao, 1995). There are about 2,500,000 Indian veteran beneficiaries (including 400,000 widows of ex-servicemen [ESM]), and about 60,000 are added to this list annually (Uppal, 2011). These released personnel called ESM or veterans are mostly in the prime of their life, and therefore their successful resettlement into civilian society is a national concern. Resettlement here refers to a process which not only ensures a smooth second career transition but also smoother out the jerks of the migration through institutional counseling, guidance, training, and coordination (see Kishore, 1991, p. 25).

The Indian Air Force (IAF, 2015), the air arm of the Indian Armed Forces, today stands as a credible airpower counted among the foremost professional services in the world. International Institute for Strategic Studies estimates that the IAF has a strength of 127,000 active personnel (Hackett, 2010). Even though the current IAF parlance refers to the ESM as air (force) veterans, the awareness and use of the term “veterans” is yet to become characteristic in India (Maharajan & Subramani, 2014a). Even in the international context, a previous study in the United Kingdom noted that the term veteran does not have a universal meaning; it connotes different things to different people, whether military personnel, national governments, or the general public (Dandeker, Wessely, Iversen, & Ross, 2006). Another survey on the ex-service personnel of United Kingdom concluded that only half of the sample described themselves as veterans (Burdett et al., 2012). Hence, we use the terms ESM and veterans interchangeably.

This study focuses on the personnel below officer rank (PBOR) who were released from IAF. These men tend to have middle socioeconomic background, educational qualifications, and rank at enrollment in the armed forces (Kishore, 1991, p. 67; Maharajan & Subramani, 2014a, 2014b). All the PBOR, except a few instructors in the IAF, are recruited as trainees in the rank of aircraftsmen and are governed by common terms and conditions of service. The PBOR share a unique, sustained comradeship. In addition, the uniformity of their ranks even after release from the services, distinctly characterize them as a separate socioeconomic group (Kishore, 1991, p. 67; Maharajan & Subramani, 2014a, 2014b). In contrast to the retirement age of 58–60 years for most civilian government employees in India, tenure for typical defense personnel is truncated. Retirement begins much earlier (35–47 years). This policy ensures the armed forces are young and fighting fit (Rao, 1995).

The changing socioeconomic structure in India further provides these ESM with contemporary challenge (breakdown of joint family system; Rao, 1995). The ex-serviceman of 2015 cannot count on the support of his family of origin or close relatives in his effort to resettle. Further, ex-service members leave a supporting military environment and face enormous difficulties, as they try to adjust to civilian ways of life. Discharge from the armed forces also means loss of income, recognition, identification, professional status, familiar ways of spending time and energy, associates and peers, and autonomy or self-expression. These losses bring socioeconomic and psychological problems (Singh, 1985) with massive socioeconomic implications, especially in the current civil society (Maharajan & Subramani, 2014a). Thus, veterans released from the armed forces battle an unknown arena, as they pursuit second career.

There is scarcity of academic research on the resettlement of ex-service veterans in India. Among the few studies, Singh (1985) found a majority (84.28%) of retired army officers in Maharashtra state of India did not benefit from the resettlement facilities. The present situation is not much better. Maharajan and Subramani (2014a) found that only 18% of veterans got support in resettlement from governments and other agencies. Further, the majority (53%) of air force veterans face significant problems in resettlement that include financial difficulties, adjustment with civil society, and inadequate support from the resettlement organizations and the society (Maharajan and Subramani, 2014a). In addition, Phadatare (2003, pp. 58-66) found that “less than one-fourth of the ex-servicemen had received resettlement training. The anomaly is traceable to the inadequate resettlement training facilities and the large number of servicemen retiring every year.” A recent study in India revealed that only 34% of air force veterans were sponsored for resettlement courses (Maharajan & Subramani, 2014b). Besides, Onkar Singh (2005) outlined that “Government agencies [in India] responsible for resettlement are lacking powers and are out dated” (p. 240). Further, according to Brigadier Sudhir Uppal (2011), a large number of ex-servicemen are living in remote areas and are unaware of the facilities available to them in resettlement.

Current research by Burdett, Dandeker, and Fear (2014) focused on the United Kingdom and transition from military to civilian life, which involves not only reentering the labor market but also a broader social need of reengagement with wider society. They pinpoint the “paucity of academic research on this subject, including the effects of the UK Ministry of Defence’s ‘resettlement’ package to facilitate Service members’ transition to civilian life” (Burdett, Dandeker, and Fear, 2014). Recently, Hatch et al. (2013, pp. 1045-1064) confirmed that “all service leavers have to navigate new and changing civilian and military social experiences, resources, and networks.” Furthermore, according to Iversen, Dyson, et al. (2005, pp. 480-486), “ex-service personnel are reluctant to seek help, both while in service and after leaving.” Therefore, resettlement brings socioeconomic challenges well beyond reemployment.

However, the existing research literature in India does not enlighten us on the actual needs in resettlement of veterans. Apart from a study on retired army officers (Singh, 1985), Kishore (1991) studied the resettlement of PBOR of Indian Army in the states of Haryana and Uttar Pradesh in India. These studies were undertaken two to three decades ago and may not remain fully relevant to the modern times. Besides, Phadatare (2003) studied the resettlement of ESM in Satara district of Maharashtra state in India. Onkar Singh (2005) in his book elaborated on the concerns of Indian ESM only on a conceptual basis. Therefore, a contemporary study analyzing the resettlement of IAF enlistees is long overdue.

A Continuum of Socioeconomic Needs in Veterans Resettlement

Abraham Maslow’s (1954) motivation theory ranked human needs with a hierarchy from low to high. Koontz and Weihrich (2010, p. 287) define motivation as “a general term applying to the entire class of drives, desires, needs, wishes and similar forces” that induce an individual or a group of people to work. Identification and assessment of veterans’ socioeconomic needs and their motivation for fulfillment of the needs are vital for effective resettlement. The models, socioeconomic need continuum and motivation in resettlement, are developed by identifying noteworthy needs in resettlement through firsthand experience, previous writings, and interaction with the veterans. Indian airmen are mostly released from the military when they are in their late 30s or early 40s. Thus, they have at the individual or micro level ongoing socioeconomic family responsibilities. As the average age of marriage for these airmen is late 20s or early 30s, most have children to educate when they leave the armed services. Ex-Indian airmen also must fulfill the obligation of arranging the marriage of their son(s) and/or daughter(s). Some veterans also have responsibility for their aged parents and may need to assist siblings.

The ability to fulfill these obligations is challenged by the partial withdrawal of privileges and facilities availed to active duty personnel. ESM are paid only 50% of the last salary drawn in the armed forces as their pension. Phadatare (2003) found that for an overwhelming majority of 83% ESM, their pension was absolutely insufficient for their survival. Air warriors of the IAF need to serve for a minimum of 15 years to be eligible for pension. Although pensions are revised by the Central Pay Commissions every 10 years, the pension of ESM released in the past is not equated with that of their counterparts released later. As a result, veterans who retired earlier receive a much smaller pension than those who retired more recently (Vombatkere, 2015). With a meager pension as their main source of income, ESM face enormous difficulties to making ends meet and sustaining an expected quality of life. Veterans also receive a government bonus (gratuity) of about a year and half’s pay, which is even true for a veteran with 20 years of service.

Therefore, on the one hand, ESM need to fulfill enormous responsibilities, and on the other, they have limited resources to manage the same. Moreover, one of the important issues for a veteran is the necessity of acquiring a house for his family. Thus, ESM must search for a civilian employment to augment their earnings. In addition, because many of veterans were away from their family and area of origin during their military service, they wish to spend quality time with their family, friends, and relatives. Therefore, we identified the following needs in resettlement of veterans:

children’s education,

The content validity and face validity of these constructs were checked using expert opinion from the officeholders of veterans’ associations and a statistician. Then, we conducted a pilot study with 100 veteran respondents (70 from Coimbatore district and 30 from The Nilgiris district, respectively). The reliability of these constructs got a high score of .7 (Cronbach’s α). The constructs were fine-tuned based on the feedback from the pilot study. The survey was completed by 400 respondents (α score of .8).

The constructs reveal that resettlement needs of armed forces veterans involve both social and economic aspects. For instance, educating the children and arranging their marriage contain both social and economic obligations. Many of the identified needs contain different degrees of social and economic obligations. Accordingly, we arranged the important needs in resettlement along a continuum with social and economic implications at either extreme. Figure 1 illustrates the relative position of each need in resettlement along the socioeconomic continuum. Arranging for alternate income from savings is at the end of the economic need continuum. Acquiring a car or house and finding a civilian job or business are also heavily weighted as an economic need. The needs which occupy the other side of the continuum are those with high social content like living in a place of origin with relatives and friends and taking care of the members of family, including one’s family of origin. Needs which contain both social and economic component include educating the children and arranging their marriage are in the center of the continuum.

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Figure 1.

Socioeconomic continuum of needs in resettlement of veterans.

Method and Materials

This research used cross-sectional data with longitudinal aspects by including the PBOR veterans of IAF released during the last three decades. Survey data were collected from the Tamil Nadu state of India. Tamil Nadu contains more than 6% of the Indian population of ESM as on September 2008 (Ex-servicemen Census, 2009). The Nilgiris and Coimbatore districts were selected in order to represent the relatively developed and underdeveloped regions of Tamil Nadu which are typical of India. Coimbatore district is socioeconomically developed compared to The Nilgiris. Further, 16% of ESM population from the state of Tamil Nadu in India belonged to these two districts (Ex-servicemen Census, 2009). The sizes of air force veteran population are 1,148 for Coimbatore and 231 for The Nilgiris. Stratified random sampling method was used to draw samples from two sampling frames representing the districts. Since there were no women PBOR air force veterans, the sample is exclusively men.

We determined the sample size of the study using an equation which set the confidence interval approach of inferential statistics to enhance the representativeness. ¹ Estimation of a representative sample size involves appropriate delineation of the underlying goals as well as an accurate and basic knowledge on the population (Watson, 2001). The population of Coimbatore is relatively heterogeneous comprising rural and urban areas with both agriculture and industrial socioeconomic background. In contrast, The Nilgiris is predominantly a hilly, agrarian, environment with a reasonably homogeneous population. Considering this and the accuracy requirements, we determined the sample of 400 veterans approximately included 280 from Coimbatore and 120 from The Nilgiris. These sample sizes enabled us to draw inferences using district wise, comparative, and collective statistics.

Once the respondents were identified, various ways to contact them were used. The veteran respondents were spread across the nook and corners of the two districts. Publications of veterans’ associations which included the updated respondent details were useful to establish contact. In addition, the cooperation of officeholders of veterans’ associations enabled data collection at association meetings. Follow-up with the veterans was conducted as necessary.

The survey accomplished the primary data collection through personal administration of a validated questionnaire to ESM of the IAF. The questionnaire design enabled the collection of quantitative data, including the socioeconomic profile of veterans and their responses on variables in resettlement, along with a provision for recording qualitative data. As part of the questionnaire, the participants were requested to indicate their level and order of significance for the identified needs in resettlement over a 10-point range. Level 1 indicates the most significant need and Level 10 refers to the least significant need.

Analyses, Results, and Interpretations

First, a demographic and service profile of the veterans is presented. Second, the resettlement needs are ranked using Garrett’s rank analysis. The results are classified and used to develop a new motivation model on resettlement needs of veterans. And the implications are discussed incorporating veterans’ comments.

Sociodemographic Profile and Migration Patterns in Resettlement of Veterans

This study includes veterans released during the three decades up to the year 2013. The veterans’ profile presents a useful perspective to interpret the findings of the research. Table 1 shows the results of the relevant profile analysis including the sociodemographic and resettlement data of the veterans by district. The analysis shows that consistent with the policy of limited tenure, most ESM are released from the air force before the normal age of superannuation. In particular, 42% of the veterans were released from the air force between the ages of 36 and 40, followed by 24% each of the sample released below 35 years and between 41 and 50 years. Since 90% are 50 or under and in the prime of life—they will have a variety of economic and social resettlement challenges. Their meager pensions are inadequate to bridge till the retirement age of 60.

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Table 1.

District (Region) Wise Sociodemographic and Resettlement Profile of IAF Veterans.

Profile Variables	Coimbatore District		The Nilgiris		Total
	Count (n1 = 280)	Percentage	Count (n2 = 120)	Percentage	Count (n = 400)	Percentage
Nature of release from IAF
Contract completion	260	92.8	116	96.6	376	94.0
Regular superannuation	20	7.1	4	3.3	24	6.0
Age at release (years)
35 and below	68	24.3	28	23.3	96	24.0
36–40	116	41.4	52	43.3	168	42.0
41–50	60	21.4	36	30.0	72	24.0
51 and more	36	12.9	4	3.3	40	10.0
Original locality of veterans
Village	100	35.7	112	93.4	212	53.0
Town	96	34.3	4	3.3	100	25.0
City	84	30.0	4	3.3	88	22.0
Resettlement locale
Village	28	10.0	28	23.3	56	14.0
Town	92	32.9	48	40.0	140	35.0
City	160	57.1	44	36.6	204	51.0
System of family
Separate family	204	72.9	100	83.3	304	76.0
Joint family	76	27.1	20	16.7	96	24.0
Parents dependent on veteran?
Yes	80	28.6	20	16.7	100	25.0
No	200	71.4	100	83.3	300	75.0

Note. n1 = sample size for Coimbatore district and n2 = sample size for The Nilgiris district. IAF = Indian Air Force.

The profile questions revealed interesting patterns in migration of ESM for resettlement. Firstly, in Coimbatore district, of the 35.7% of respondents who originally belonged to villages, only 10% resettled in the villages. Over 93% of The Nilgiris respondents originally resided in villages. Only 23.3% of these veterans returned to the villages, implying that 70% of veterans migrated out of the villages. Altogether, most (53%) of the respondents are originally from villages, 25% are from towns, and 22% are from cities. Contrarily, Table 1 reveals that the majority (51%) of ESM had resettled in cities and 35% of veterans had resettled in towns compared to 14% resettlement in the villages. Most of the veterans (76%) live in nuclear families (consisting of the veteran, wife, and children), whereas only 24% reside in extended families with their family of origin. In addition, for 25%, their parents are dependents.

Analysis on Significance of Socioeconomic Needs in Resettlement

Clearly, this is a group of veterans who leave the services with many challenges. This section identifies key resettlement issues and shows how the veterans ranked the needs (using Garrett’s ranking technique). The respondents were asked to assign ranks to the needs in resettlement according to their order of significance. The veterans were required to assign rank “1” to the most significant need and gradually give rank “10” to the need of least priority. Then, we converted the levels of significance of the needs marked by the veterans into percentages. ² The ranking was provided using mean scores (lower means corresponding with higher rankings).

Table 2 presents the scores and rankings for the needs, and it shows that among the total respondents, the mean significance scores ranged from 16.6 to 73.9 (percentage position). Specifically, “children’s education” was first rank in the order of priority, “getting a civilian job (or business)” secured the second rank, and the need for “acquiring a house” is third. The top rankings for children’s education and civilian job corroborate with the demographic analysis that 66% of veterans were discharged from the IAF at the age of 40 or below and 90% of them were released at the age of 50 or below. The high need for housing is because 76% of veterans live in nuclear families rather than with their parents in joint families (see Table 1). Moreover, the need of “living in the place of origin” was relegated to the last rank as 70% of the ESM had migrated out of their original places of residence as revealed by the resettlement patterns.

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Table 2.

Significance of Socioeconomic Needs in Resettlement of Veterans.

Needs in Resettlement of Veterans	Significance Scores		Rank
	Total	Mean
1.  Children’s education	6,640	16.6	1
2.  Marriage of son(s)/daughter(s)	18,800	47.0	5
3.  Caring for aged parents	17,160	42.9	4
4.  Getting a civilian job (or business)	9,520	23.8	2
5.  Acquiring a house	16,520	41.3	3
6.  Purchasing a car	29,120	72.8	9
7.  Assisting one’s brothers and sisters	26,120	65.3	8
8.  Regular income from savings	23,520	58.8	7
9.  Spending time with family	23,040	57.6	6
10. Living in the place of origin	29,560	73.9	10

Note. The lowest mean significance score (percentage position) refers to the highest order of significance of the need in resettlement of veterans and vice versa. Therefore, Rank 1 indicates the highest order of significance of the need, and gradually Rank 10 refers to the lowest order of significance of the need in resettlement of veterans. Bold face signifies the Rank of the needs (that is used for developing the model).

In a pragmatic view, the needs basically reflect the motivation of the veterans in the process of their resettlement. Next, a motivation model for the needs in resettlement of ex-service veterans is developed.

Pyramidal Motivation Model for Resettlement of Veterans

The results led to a creation of a pyramidal motivation model as a way to interpret socioeconomic resettlement needs (see Figure 2). The essential socioeconomic needs which include children’s education, the veterans’ need of getting a civilian profession, and acquiring a house aptly occupy the base of the pyramidal model of resettlement needs. These needs comprise the immediate responsibilities of an ex-serviceman toward his children, ensuring the housing for the family and the essential requirement of securing a civilian employment, which forms the base for fulfilling the further needs. Next up in the ladder are the needs to fulfill the socioeconomic security such as caring for one’s old parents, finding a marriage partner and arranging the marriage of one’s son(s)/daughter(s). The third tier includes needs that are necessary for leading a comfortable life such as spending time with the family and arranging alternate sources of income to tide over contingencies. Level 4 includes the socioeconomic esteem needs like assisting one’s brother(s)/sister(s) and purchasing a car for own use. The social fulfillment needs are at the summit of the pyramid and embrace the veterans’ need for living in their places of origin with relatives and friends. This level principally refers to the satisfaction need of the veterans to be recognized in the society and to achieve a sense of accomplishment.

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Figure 2.

Motivation pyramid for socioeconomic needs in resettlement of veterans.

The pyramidal model of socioeconomic needs in resettlement of veterans is inspired by Abraham Maslow’s theory of motivation (see Kumar & Meenakshi, 2011). Maslow’s model of motivation demarcates the generic human needs into physiological, safety and security, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization. Our model of motivation appears to suit the unique needs in resettlement of veterans as shown below:

Level I: Essential socioeconomic needs [immediate needs]

Children’s education,

getting a civilian job (or business), and

acquiring a house (for the family).

Level II: Socioeconomic security needs [short-term needs]

Caring for aged parents and

marriage of son(s)/daughter(s).

Level III: Socioeconomic comfort needs [medium term needs]

Spending time with family and

regular income from savings.

Level IV: Socioeconomic esteem needs [long-term needs]

Assisting one’s brothers and sisters and

purchasing a car (for own use).

Level V: Social fulfillment need [very long-term need]

Living in the place of origin (with relatives and friends).

Thus, we classified the needs in resettlement in five levels representing the essential socioeconomic needs, socioeconomic security needs, socioeconomic comfort needs, socioeconomic esteem needs, and social fulfillment needs. The needs are also sorted on the timeline as immediate needs, short-term needs, medium term needs, long-term needs, and very long-term needs in the resettlement process of veterans.

The pyramidal motivation model highlights the significance of formulating a strategy for systematically developing policies and plans for resettling veterans. Strategy is defined by Mintzberg (1987) as “a pattern in a stream of decisions and action.” We expect this resettlement motivation model to be useful as a guideline for inclusive public policy formulation among stakeholders such as government, veterans’ associations, and resettlement organizations. Furthermore, this study employs the pyramidal motivation model to resettlement needs in developed and underdeveloped regions of India. Therefore, we performed region (district) wise comparative Garrett’s rank analysis to test the relevancy of the motivation model.

District (Region) Wise Analysis on Significance of Resettlement Needs

This study encompassed veterans in two distinct districts (Coimbatore and The Nilgiris) representing relatively developed and underdeveloped regions, respectively. Therefore, to test whether veterans of the two districts differ notably on the significance of socioeconomic needs in resettlement, we performed comparative Garrett’s rank analysis (Table 3).

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Table 3.

District (Region) Wise Garrett’s Rankings of Resettlement Needs and Rank Correlation.

	Socioeconomic Needs of Veterans in Resettlement	Coimbatore (n1 = 280)			The Nilgiris (n2 = 120)
		Total Score	Mean Score	Rank	Total Score	Mean Score	Rank
1.	Children’s education	4,840	17.29	1	1,800	15.00	1
2.	Marriage of son(s)/daughter(s)	13,400	47.86	5	5,400	45.00	4
3.	Caring for aged parents	12,200	43.57	4	4,960	41.33	3
4.	Getting a civilian job (or business)	5,640	20.14	2	3,880	32.33	2
5.	Acquiring a house	10,840	38.71	3	5,680	47.33	5
6.	Purchasing a car	20,320	72.57	9	8,800	73.33	10
7.	Assisting one’s brothers and sisters	18,520	66.14	8	7,600	63.33	8
8.	Regular income from savings	16,120	57.57	6	7,400	61.67	7
9.	Spending time with family	16,520	59.00	7	6,520	54.33	6
10.	Living in the place of origin	21,600	77.14	10	7,960	66.33	9

Note. Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient = .939 (significant at 1% level). The lowest mean significance score (percentage position) for each district refers to the highest order of significance of the need in respect of a district and vice versa. Hence, Rank 1 of each district indicates the highest order of significance of the need in resettlement, and gradually Rank 10 refers to the need with the lowest order of significance for the veterans.

We computed the total scores, mean significance scores, Garrett’s rankings, and Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient for the Coimbatore and The Nilgiris district. In Table 3, the lowest score for each district refers to the highest order of significance for the need in resettlement of veterans and vice versa. The high Spearman’s rank correlation coefficient of .939 is statistically significant (at 1% level) and demonstrating a strong correlation.

Discussion and Implications

The need of a civilian career is essential for an ex-serviceman to maintain a quality of life and to fulfill his family responsibilities. This is necessary because 94% of veterans are released from the air force before the standard age of superannuation. To be specific, a sizable number of veterans (42%) are released at the younger age-group of 36–40 and the majority (66%) is discharged below the age of 40. This analysis also corroborates the letter from former Prime Minister of India that the veterans are released at a younger age (Rao, 1995). By collating the profile analysis and Garrett’s rankings, we infer that the young age of release is the reason for the veterans to rank their children’s education as the most significant need followed by finding civilian employment.

Focusing on the resettlement pattern, this study reveals that the majority of veterans are resettled in cities, followed by towns, and just 14% are able to return to villages. This suggests an indirect migration toward cities and towns, as most of the veterans originated from small villages. This trend stretches the socioeconomic fabric of cities and towns. Further, the study affirms the observations in a letter from former Prime Minister of India Rao (1995) on the breaking down of multigenerational family systems. Most of the veterans live in nuclear families with spouse and children. Hence, there is moderate need for veterans to “spend time with family.” The study confirms that almost all the dependent parents (25 %) of veterans live with them in joint families, thus explaining the significant need ranking of veterans to care for their parents.

The Government of India extends various resettlement facilities and benefits to the veterans and their families. These include Canteen facilities that provide grocery and liquor at concessional rates, ex-servicemen contributory health scheme, Zilla Sainik Boards (also known as District Soldiers’ Sailors’ and Airmen’s Boards), housing societies, and so on. However, ESM face sizable problems in using the service of these facilities in resettlement. A veteran with 20 years of service vividly explained: “I did not apply for allotment of house because it was not affordable with my holdings.” Besides, many veterans find the service of these organizations unsatisfactory.

In addition, there is a provision of quotas and age relaxation to veterans for mostly lower level jobs in the central and state government departments. On the other hand, the governments may consider the possibility of fitting the veterans, on their release, in suitable civilian careers according to their qualifications. Besides, a limited number of ESM venture into entrepreneurship, which provides a viable resettlement alternative (Maharajan & Subramani, 2014c). Further, the governments may extend housing arrangements for the veterans on a subsidized cost sharing basis. Also, there is a need to raise the number and capacity of compatible schools (such as the Kendriya Vidyalayas) for the children of veterans on priority.

This study on resettlement of ESM in India shares similarities with veteran studies in other countries. Iversen, Nikolaou, et al. (2005) confirmed that “there had never been any systemized follow-up of ex-service personnel in the UK.” In a current study in the United Kingdom on veterans and resettlement, Burdett et al. (2014) noted their intent “to track numerous socioeconomic outcomes, including psychological wellbeing, job acquisition and stability, housing situation, financial and legal difficulty, social activity, and relationship satisfaction.” Burdett et al. further note that their research is the first large-scale quantitative analysis of the effect of resettlement on wider dimensions of veteran transition beyond the current focus on the labor market as well as any interactions with in-service and preservice factors affecting the welfare of ex-service personnel. Similarly, this study tracks the socioeconomic needs of veterans with proactive approach for effective resettlement.

In addition, the U.S. army had announced reduction of its strength by 80,000 troops by the year 2017 as part of a budget-cutting plan, making it one of the largest force reductions since World War II. According to the U.S. Army Chief General Raymond Odierno, “If Congress allows the automatic budget reductions to continue, the Army would face much more dramatic downsizing, with up to 100,000 additional troops cut” (The Hindu, 2013). Such reductions in armed forces results in higher population of veterans and may increase the associated problems of resettlement in the United States. Therefore, studies on transition of veterans and their integration in the civil society including employment in the civil labor market assume significance (see Humensky, Jordan, Stroupe, & Hynes, 2013).

On a strategic context for India, Wilkinson (2015) uncovered the command and control strategies, the careful ethnic balancing, the political, foreign policy, and strategic decisions that have made the army safe for Indian democracy. He mentioned that officers of the Indian armed forces were placed below civil servants in status, given large pay cuts, and discouraged from making speeches. Further, he noted that India preserved civilian supremacy at some cost to military effectiveness. Yet Wilkinson’s lesson is that healthy civil–military relations, vital to sustaining any ethnically and religiously diverse democracy, are the product of institutional legacies and diligent civilian oversight (Joshi, 2015). Veterans seldom get the opportunity to air their feelings in civilian society. According to one veteran, “After a long time, I got the opportunity to disclose my feelings as an ex-serviceman. Thanks for giving a chance.”

Veterans, having served the nation during the better part of their lives, expect the government to assist them in resettlement. One veteran insists that “experience of ex-servicemen should be utilized in a better manner [commensurate] with their work experience.” Another veteran notes with concern that “after discharge, [there is] no guidance from civil government agencies to settle down and to get a proper job or do a business.” A veteran interested in self-employment reflects on the “risk factors and lack of realistic data and support systems prevent me from exploring my potential and experience.” Yet another veteran reinforces that resettlement must be looked after by the governments immediately after the release.

It is very difficult for these former airmen to arrange their resettlement because most serve at far off places away from their hometowns in the geographically seventh largest country of the world. A veteran’s suggestion for a posting near hometown before release from the services is justified for resettlement. Further, veterans aspire for better resettlement commensurate with their educational qualifications and abilities. However, it is a strange situation where the veterans are too matured to seek entry-level jobs but find it difficult to equate their experiences with the requisites of middle and senior-level jobs. Even though there is relaxation in age for government jobs, veterans find it difficult to compete with young civilian aspirants. A veteran qualified in law and management suggests: “Uniformity of policy across all states may be pursued. Loans with special interest rates for home and car may be introduced.”

Due to the prolonged indoctrination with military culture, since a young age, veterans face unfamiliar circumstances in civil society. As stated by a veteran that it is “very difficult to deal with the civilians,” most of the veterans face this problem; the difference is only in the degree of difficulties. Another veteran opens up his feelings: “An ex-serviceman has to struggle to come up in civil life. In my view, ex-servicemen need more support and honor from the government and society. No one remembers an old warrior. No support from any agency.” Most importantly, being an ex-service veteran implies both merits and demerits in coping up with civil society, especially for reemployment. A veteran aptly summarizes: “Having been stamped as hardworking, dedicated, sincere, and honest—courtesy to the services discipline—has given the civilian establishment an image of the ex-servicemen [as] more than life size, which at times [is] very hard to maintain and handle the big name. Yes, this image is a boon and a bane at times.”

At the macro-socioeconomic level, this study supports the existing theories on resettlement of armed forces’ veterans (see Kishore, 1991, pp. 76–82). First, the deprivation and subsequent compensation theory focuses on the responsibility of the government for the cause and effect of resettlement of veterans. Effective resettlement of veterans is important to keep up the morale of serving members of defense forces and young aspirants to the military services.

Second, the prevention of deviant individual or collective behavior theory highlights the onus of policy makers and society toward the welfare of veterans. The veterans are staging protests and hunger strikes to pressure the government for implementation of the one rank one pension (OROP) scheme which has been a long-standing demand. OROP seeks to ensure equal pension to defense personnel who retire at the same rank with the same length of service, irrespective of their date of retirement (Upadhyay, 2015). Military pension ought to be distinct due to the peculiarities of the services, rank identities, and the younger age of veterans at release. Even in China, contention by ex-officers for pensions and other benefits says much about how “sticky” military identities are, civil–military relations, and the treatment that old soldiers receive in a fast changing socioeconomic order (O’Brien & Diamant, 2015).

Third, the manpower management theory pinpoints the economic loss due to underutilization of the versatile veterans. Enormous public money is spent on the recruitment, training, and welfare of the military personnel. Both veterans and the society should benefit if the expertise of the ESM is effectively utilized through compatible civilian employment. Essentially, these theories highlight the fact that resettlement is an inclusive socioeconomic activity, and the current study reveals the genuine needs in resettlement of veterans.

Limitations of the Study and Directions for Future Research

This research is one of the original studies on resettlement of ESM in India, and the survey is the first exclusively on resettlement of air force veterans. The veterans of IAF were considered to be distinct from their counterparts in the army and navy in terms of their outlook and other characteristics. Kishore (1991) mentioned that ESM of the IAF and Indian Navy possess higher educational and technical qualifications, fluency in English, and urban orientation compared to the army veterans (pp. 62–64). Hence, the findings of this study may not be generalizable to veterans of Indian Army. However, this observation made almost a quarter of a century ago may not hold ground in the current socioeconomic scenario. The said distinction of air force veterans is gradually fading, as their peer groups in the army and navy are fast catching up. Therefore, the findings of this study may be generalized to a reasonable extent to ESM of all the three arms of the services. Likewise, research on veterans of the army and navy may be conducted to find their resettlement needs compared to that of the IAF veterans.

Further research about the needs of veterans in other states of India for a comparative analysis would be useful. Even though the models as a whole may be appropriate to other cultures, the applicability of the specific needs to other societies, particularly Western cultures, is limited as the socioeconomic differences influence the significance of needs in veteran resettlement. However, this methodology should be appropriate for replication across countries.

Conclusion

This article analyzed the significance of socioeconomic needs in resettlement of veterans in India. Ninety percentage of veterans are released from the services at the age of 50 or below and have many productive years ahead. So, their resettlement becomes an important issue at both microeconomic and macroeconomic levels. It would be a great socioeconomic loss, if the nation does not effectively manage the human resources of these well trained versatile veterans. Therefore, top-down and bottom-up strategies for inclusive management of resettlement should be deployed. Hence, the government and resettlement authorities need to analyze the resettlement of veterans to understand the constituent needs in the process and to extend facilities to fulfill them. This should be complemented by the veterans and veteran organizations’ responsibility to update themselves on the facilities in resettlement and make earnest efforts toward effective utilization. Thus, the balancing necessity is to manage the resettlement needs effectively for a comprehensive socioeconomic development.

Comparative Garrett’s ranking reveals that the significance of resettlement needs is common across the two regions with very different levels of socioeconomic development. The needs were ranked and classified (most important to least) based on socioeconomic security, comfortable lifestyle, and social belongingness. Further, this study sets up the pyramidal motivation model for the significance of socioeconomic needs in resettlement of veterans. We propose this model as a refinement of the motivation theory of the human need hierarchy model of Abraham Maslow, for the resettlement of ESM. It makes sense to manage the resettlement of veterans in line with the significance of needs in resettlement toward inclusive development.

This study should spearhead further research on the resettlement of veterans in India. It is relevant to remember that veterans of the armed forces sacrificed their youth for the public safety. The findings should provide guidance toward concrete management methods for effective resettlement of India’s veteran comrades. Such an administration should ensure inclusive socioeconomic development of the great Indian society.