Outcomes of Introduction to the Psychology Major

Abstract

University career courses have become a more standard offering at many colleges and universities over the past few decades. Similarly, there has been an increase in the number of psychology departments offering a careers course for psychology majors or an introduction to the psychology major course. This study examines the outcomes of a course that provides students with information regarding both the psychology major and career opportunities. The findings indicate that by the end of the course, students were more knowledgeable of psychology major and minor requirements, felt more prepared for and capable of working in a psychology-related field, and felt they had more knowledge about subdisciplines within psychology. Furthermore, students had more knowledge about occupational opportunities and how to access information.

Keywords

psychology major careers advising

Psychology careers courses are not a new topic; these courses have been evolving over the years and share many similarities with university career courses. Folsom and Reardom (2003) performed a meta-analysis of studies on university career courses to assess the availability and utility of such courses. Findings indicated that students who took the courses were satisfied and the courses increased retention. Fouad, Cotter, and Kantamneni (2009) evaluated a university career course designed to increase career decision-making self-efficacy and facilitate career exploration. They found that completion of the course increased students’ career self-efficacy and decreased career decision-making difficulties. The above-mentioned findings thus indicate positive outcomes associated with university career courses.

Noting the benefit of university career courses, the American Psychological Association (APA) included career planning and development as a learning outcome for psychology students (Halonen et al., 2002). However, despite the increase in course offerings and APA learning outcomes, only a fraction of psychology departments offer a careers course in psychology or introduction to the psychology major class (Green, 2008; Landrum, Shoemaker, & Davis, 2003). For example, Landrum, Shoemaker, and Davis (2003) found that only 34% of the departments that responded to their survey had a careers course in psychology or introduction to the psychology major class. Additionally, Green (2008) found that many psychology departments have not yet implemented a careers in psychology course, with larger universities being more likely to have a careers course than smaller liberal art schools.

Despite the limited development and utilization of introduction to the major and careers courses, a large minority of psychology departments have begun to offer introduction and capstone courses addressing these topics. The courses often focus on several different topics, including career planning (Thomas & McDaniel, 2004), career development (Ware, 1981, 1988), introduction to the major (Dillinger & Landrum, 2002; Landrum et al., 2003; Lloyd, 2002; Macera & Cohen, 2006), and capstone courses about graduate study in psychology (Dodson, Chastain, & Landrum, 1996; Roscoe & Strapp, 2009). The career planning and development courses are more similar to the general career courses offered at universities. Alternatively, the introduction to the major and capstone courses are less likely to have a focus on general career theory and preparation and more likely to focus on specific information about the psychology major and careers.

Green (2008) advocated for the combination of content of the more traditional university career course and introduction to the major course. The combination of the more traditional university career course and introduction to the major course is logical, given the limited time, resources, and faculty that most universities face. Additionally, addressing and discussing career development theory and career skills while exploring personal psychology interests and options will facilitate a deeper educational and personal exploration process for the students. It is thus expected that the combined careers- and major-related course content will have a synergistic effect and provide benefits over and above a course that examines each of the above-mentioned topics individually. To date, however, little empirical research has addressed the potential benefit of a combined introduction to the major and careers course. To address this limitation, the current study examines the efficacy of a course that combines introduction to the major and careers course content using pretest and posttest assessments of student outcomes across five academic terms.

Notably, the course described in the current article bears some similarity to previously presented courses. In particular, the course presented in this article is similar to an introduction to the psychology major course described by Dillinger and Landrum (2002). However, Dillinger and Landrum provided only limited information regarding the content of their course, and the course described in the current article appears to include additional topics that are more aligned with traditional career courses, such as topics related to job search strategies, informational interviewing, and the creation of job search materials. The content of the course described in the current article more directly aligns with that described by Macera and Cohen (2006). However, Macera and Cohen do not use pretest and posttest measures to assess course outcomes, thus precluding any empirically based conclusions regarding the efficacy of their course. Therefore, to our knowledge, the current research is the first to empirically evaluate relevant student outcomes in a course combining introduction to the major course content and traditional careers course content.

Course Overview

The Introduction to the Psychology Major: Careers and Opportunities course was a 10-week class that met once each week for two hours. Students took the 2 credit course for a letter grade and it counted toward elective credit in the psychology major. The required texts were Morgan and Korschengren (2009) and Landrum and Davis (2009). Supplemental materials and course notes were posted online as Macera and Cohen (2006) suggested. Topics covered in the class and assignments are described in Table 1 and descriptions of the class assignments are in Table 2.

Table 1.

Topics Covered in the Class.

Class Topics
Introduction to the psychology major (people, classes, how to get involved, etiquette)
Ways to get involved in the department and on campus
What can you do with a psychology degree
Subfields of psychology
Job search information
Informational interviewing
Cover letters and resume
Campus career center visit
Peer critique of resumes and cover letters
Graduate school in psychology and related fields
Interviewing

Table 2.

Class Assignments.

Assignment	Description
Job opening presentation	Each class period, assigned students presented a current job opening that is related to psychology. The presentation was a brief description of the job, compensation, and required experience as well as how they found the position
Academic and involvement plan	Students created an academic and involvement plan that detailed courses, graduation requirements, and goals for involvement
Graduate school summary	Students researched a graduate school program in a field or area of interest. They summarized the program, reported admission requirements, required classes, and discussed their level of interest
Cover letter	Students drafted a cover letter directed at either a job or a graduate school and participated in a peer-review class. The final draft was required to be reviewed by the career center on campus
Resume	Students drafted a resume directed at either a job or a graduate school. Like the cover letter, students participated in a peer-review class and the final draft was required to be reviewed by the career center
Library activity	Students completed an online library activity that focused on library resources, research tools, and APA style. The activity was an online module created by the library that coupled with a written assignment about the library resources
Informational interview	Students performed an informational interview with someone in a psychology-related field. The written summary of the interview was posted on a careers website that all psychology students in the department have access to. The posting of the interviews builds a repository of career information for current and future students to explore
Out-of-class activities	Across the term, students were required to engage in psychology-related activities outside of class. They needed to complete five of the activities from the list of possibilities

Note. APA = American Psychological Association.

Method

Participants

Participants were students (N = 95) enrolled in Introduction to the Psychology Major: Careers and Opportunities course across five terms. The course was targeted at those students who just completed, or were concurrently in an introductory psychology course, and were considering or had decided to major in psychology. The sample was 82.1% (n = 78) female and 17.9% (n = 17) males. The gender representation was similar to that typically seen in psychology classes at the university where the current research was conducted. The majority (73%) of the students were first- and second-year students. The remaining 22% of the students were mostly upper level students who had switched to psychology after completing more college credits. In general, the sample represented students who were just beginning psychology course work. No other demographic data beyond gender and year in school were collected.

Materials

Participants completed a course questionnaire (Dillinger & Landrum, 2002) during the first and last classes of the term. The scale has 18 questions that are answered on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Questions assessed knowledge and preparation of psychology opportunities and careers. See Table 3 for a list of questions.

Table 3.

Mean Differences in Pretest (M₁ ) and Posttest (M₂ ) Scores Aggregated Across All Terms.

Item	M₁	M₂	t	d
1. I feel prepared for any type of post-BA/BS career	2.81	4.21	−12.14**	1.25
2. I know the information necessary to apply for graduate programs in psychology	1.88	4.37	−21.11**	2.16
3. I am certain I will be able to work in a psychology-related job	3.65	4.40	−6.40**	0.66
4. I am familiar with the jobs a BA/BS-level psychologist can attain	2.60	4.55	−17.15**	1.77
5. I feel prepared to apply for graduate school	1.66	3.84	−18.80**	1.93
6. I understand the course requirements for the psychology minor at this university	3.04	4.55	−10.60**	1.09
7. I know about the opportunities in psychology that I can experience outside of the classroom	2.88	4.74	−16.20**	1.68
8. I am committed to the psychology major	4.15	4.23	−0.69	—
9. I know how to find information about psychology on the Internet	3.55	4.61	−9.19**	0.94
10. I understand the importance of math and science in psychology	3.19	4.15	−8.53**	0.89
11. I know how to find information about psychology using PsycINFO	2.59	4.45	−13.00**	1.33
12. I have a good understanding of the study skills need for success in college	4.08	4.57	−5.56**	0.57
13. I am familiar with the types of careers graduates from this program have attained	2.40	4.39	−17.85**	1.83
14. I understand the ethical implications of studying psychology and doing psychological research	3.65	4.44	−6.55**	0.67
15. Letters of recommendation are an important part of the post-BA/BS process	4.34	4.88	−6.59**	0.68
16. I understand some of the disciplines related to psychology	3.58	4.49	−9.26**	0.96
17. After this course, I think I’ll still be (am) interested in majoring in psychology	4.54	4.41	1.08	—
18. I want a career that is psychology related	4.54	4.55	−0.12	—
Composite (mean of all items)	3.29	4.44	−20.74**	2.13

Note. N = 95. Scores based on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Negative t values indicate higher levels of agreement at posttest.

**p < .01.

Procedure

Participants were given the pretest at the start of the first class and the posttest, 10 weeks later at the last class. Students were not required to put their name on the pretest; the last four digits of the students’ school identification number were used to match the pre- and posttests.

Results

We collapsed data across terms for all analyses. Paired sample t-tests were used to assess mean differences between pretest and posttest scores for each item on the assessment measure. As shown in Table 3, significant differences emerged for 15 of the 18 questions. The t values for each of the found effects were negative, indicating a rise in agreement with those statements from pretest to posttest. Measures of effect size (Cohen’s d) indicated that each found effect was moderate to large in magnitude, suggesting a substantial effect of the course on outcome indicators (see Table 3 for the questions and the mean differences in pretest and posttest scores).

To aid in interpretation of these findings, we examined each individual item with respect to whether items may be addressing a larger theme. Results of this analysis suggested that items referred to (1) career-related domains (7 items; e.g., “I feel prepared for any type of post-B.A./B.S. career”), (2) skill-related domains (7 items; e.g., “I know how to find information about psychology using PsycINFO”), and (3) major-related domains (4 items; e.g., “I am committed to the psychology major). Accordingly, we created three subscales representing the above-mentioned themes by aggregating relevant items. Internal reliability estimates for each of these subscales were acceptable for career-related items at pretest (.78) and posttest (.73), skill-related items at pretest (.70) and posttest (.74), and major-related items at pretest (.70). Lower internal reliability estimates were found for major-related items at posttest (.64). Paired sample t-tests were again used to assess mean differences in each of the subscales from pretest to posttest. As shown in Table 4, results indicated significant increases in subscale scores. Measures of effect size indicated these effects to be large in magnitude, suggesting a substantial effect of the course on perceived knowledge in career-related, skill-related, and major-related domains.

Table 4.

Mean Differences in Pretest (M₁ ) and Posttest (M₂ ) Scores for Career-Related, Skill-Related, and Major-Related Item Subscales Aggregated Across All Terms.

Subscale	M₁	M₂	t	d
1. Career-related items	2.80	4.33	−24.38**	2.51
2. Skill-related items	3.57	4.51	−14.44**	1.48
3. Major-related items	3.65	4.48	−10.59**	1.08

Note. N = 95. Scores based on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Negative t values indicate higher levels of agreement at posttest.

**p < .01.

Finally, we examined whether aggregate scores on the assessment instrument increased from pretest to posttest in each term to address whether these effects were consistent across the five terms. Analyses indicated that the found effects were consistent across terms, with aggregated responses to course outcome indicators increasing from pretest to posttest in Term 1, t(15) = −8.40, p < .001; Term 2, t(20) = −9.20, p < .001); Term 3, t(15) = −8.95, p < .001; Term 4, t(19) = −9.91, p < .001; and Term 5, t(21) = −10.18, p < .001.

Discussion

Combined psychology careers and introduction to the major courses would seem to be very important for increasing students’ knowledge of psychology. The current results support this notion by providing empirical evidence of increases in perceived knowledge in psychology career-related, skill-related, and major-related domains. Further, the found effects were very consistent, with responses to the course assessment measure increasing from pretest to posttest in all terms. To our knowledge, the current findings are the first to address the efficacy of a combined psychology careers course and introduction to the major course.

As seen in our results, there was a significant difference between pretest and posttest in all the items except those related to one’s interest in psychology (e.g., commitment to the major, interest in a career in psychology). Our results on these items are different than the significant differences seen by Dillinger and Landrum (2002). This difference in findings between studies might be explained by the fact that the participants in the Dillinger and Landrum’s study were required to take the course, whereas the participants in our study elected to take the course. It could be that the students who elected to take the course were already interested in and committed to psychology and their level of commitment was not significantly influenced by the course, thus explaining the lack of significant differences between pretest and posttest responses to these items. However, the items that did change in the current study were about perceived knowledge, suggesting the course provided students committed to psychology with valuable academic and career information.

As indicated by the reported effect sizes, increases in scores on perceived knowledge-related items were moderate to large in magnitude and generally exceeded those reported in previous research on student outcomes in similar courses (e.g., Dillinger & Landrum, 2002). This finding provocatively suggests that there may be an added benefit to combining introduction to the major and traditional careers course content. Due to a lack of data specifically addressing this point, however, any predictions concerning the benefits of combination courses versus courses that present this material separately are speculative.

Limitations and Future Directions

Previous research supports the impact and importance of careers in psychology courses. The findings of the current study add to this existing body of research and further provide empirical support suggesting a positive impact of combining the topics that are often presented in careers in psychology and introduction to the major courses as suggested by Green (2008). The current study, although further demonstrating the utility of psychology career courses, does have a few limitations that are important to note.

First, the demographics of the participants mirrored the larger demographics of the psychology department and university as a whole, but specific demographic data beyond year in school and gender were not gathered. Second, the utility of the study would be increased if additional measures that are often used in the career development literature were incorporated into the study. For example, it would have been informative to include instruments measuring career decision-making self-efficacy, locus of control, or career barriers. Addressing the potential impact of psychology career courses on such variables would give further support for the utilization of these courses. Furthermore, the current study assessed changes in perceived knowledge and growth, instead of actual knowledge change. Finally, the current study did not track whether the students who took the course eventually became or continued being psychology majors. Future studies could add a longitudinal aspect to address this issue similar to the methodology used by Roscoe and Strapp (2009) who looked at graduating senior survey results of those students who took the capstone course. However, as noted in Landrum and Mulcock (2007), the pre–post procedure used in Dillinger and Landrum (2002) was predictive of student outcomes and provided evidence that student’s initial interest in the psychology major was indeed a strong predictor of remaining a psychology major. Furthermore, Landrum and Mulcock stated that the questionnaire, specifically the items relating the perceived understanding of course content and students’ self-perception of their ability to find information about psychology, reliably predicted student outcomes.

It would be interesting to examine how changes in the current course format affect student outcomes. For example, student feedback from course evaluations suggested an increase in weekly contact from once a week to twice a week and the addition of more content. Addressing whether this change in course format leads to more positive student outcomes may be a potentially fruitful area for future research. More generally, future studies should examine varying course structures and content to add to the best practices of psychology career courses. It would be interesting to see whether course length, credit number, or pass/no pass makes a difference in the success of these courses. Finally, Reese and Miller (2006) stated that the most effective career courses are grounded in career theory. Although the current course expands beyond the introduction to the psychology major courses, the course content however does not include a focus on specific career theories. In the future, the course can be expanded to include career theory and additional topics that are often included in the more traditional university careers courses. Replicating the current study with this alteration will lend further evidence that a combination of the traditional careers course with the introduction to the careers course is beneficial.

Conclusion

Psychology careers and introduction to the major courses can inform students of opportunities and dispel psychology-related myths. For example, Green, McCord, and Westbrooks (2005) found that psychology students overestimated how much education was needed to obtain their desired job and that after a careers course, students were more accurate in their estimates. Also, the courses align with the ideas of the APA’s task force that named career planning and development as one of the 10 learning outcomes for psychology students (Halonen et al., 2002). With psychology becoming an increasingly popular major over recent years (Landrum et al., 2003), psychology departments need to equip students with knowledge about psychology and prepare them for careers as well as for graduate school. As stated previously, Green (2008) found that many psychology departments do not offer a careers in psychology course and larger universities were more likely to have such courses than smaller liberal arts schools. Green stated that larger schools may have more resources and pragmatic reasons to offer such courses (e.g., managing many majors or advisees). As indicated by the current findings, however, a combined introduction to the major and careers course would seem to be an effective and efficient way to teach major- and career-related information within the financial and logistical constraints facing many smaller colleges and universities.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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