Correlates of life satisfaction among Southeast Asian foreign domestic workers in Hong Kong: An exploratory study

Abstract

Live-in foreign domestic workers (FDWs) are a special group in Hong Kong, where they account for approximately 4 percent of Hong Kong’s population. FDWs’ level of life satisfaction (LS) and its correlates have been under-researched thus far. This study examined data from 130 participants and sought to determine the effect of perceived social support, self-esteem and demographic characteristics on LS. The results showed that being married was negatively associated with LS while self-esteem was not a significant factor. The findings suggest the importance of providing support to FDWs to enhance their LS.

Keywords

live-in domestic workers migrant workers life satisfaction social support self-esteem Hong Kong

Introduction

Employment-related mobility is increasing in the growing global economy (Lau et al., 2012). Hong Kong is a major destination of foreign workers, particularly foreign domestic workers (FDWs) from developing countries in Asia. Based on data from the Census and Statistics Department (2017), there were more than 351,000 live-in FDWs in Hong Kong in 2016, accounting for nearly 9 percent of the overall labor force. These statistics indicate their important role in the labor market. The overwhelming majority of FDWs are female (98.45 percent); moreover, the majority of FDWs are either Filipino or Indonesian.

Live-in FDWs face psychological challenges in destination countries, such as culture shock and interpersonal stress brought about by an unfamiliar environment (Im et al., 2014). Female migrants in Kazakhstan were found to have a higher risk of poor health, lower utilization of health services (Ismayilova et al., 2014) and higher stress levels (Van der Ham et al., 2015). Migration could affect one’s life satisfaction (LS). In a study of 290 female Filipino domestic workers residing in Hong Kong, Holroyd et al. (2001) found that the four highest mental distress symptoms are waking in the early hours, loneliness, worry and taking a long time to get to sleep.

Compared with other types of workers, there have been fewer studies on FDWs’ psychological well-being and the factors affecting it. Thus, this study is noteworthy because it focuses on live-in FDWs, migrant workers who leave their countries to work overseas and live in their employer’s home.

Theoretical background

The Bronfenbrenner model (Bronfenbrenner, 2005) provided a theoretical background for the study. Consisting of different systems, namely, microsystems (direct environment), mesosystems (relationships between the microsystems), exosystems (indirect influence with one’s immediate setting), macrosystems (socio-cultural impact) and chronosystem (transitions and shifts in one’s lifespan), the ecological model highlights the importance of multiple contexts and interconnected settings and their influences on development. The model’s dynamics appear to be further complicated when workers live and work abroad because they immerse themselves in new socio-cultural contexts and the interconnections of these different systems are probably different. This may make the migrant workers’ psycho-social portraits, including LS, perceived social support (PSS) and self-esteem (SE), worth looking into.

LS is a measure of one’s subjective well-being (Diener et al., 2009). It is also described as ‘the overall quality of an employee’s experience and functioning’ (Grant et al., 2007). In a study with college student samples from 31 countries in five continents, Diener and Diener (1995) suggested that SE contributes to LS. The influence of demographic characteristics and immigration pattern on LS was examined in Sweden (Fugl-Meyer et al., 2002). Despite some literature about LS, to date, the discussion on LS and its correlates crucial to FDWs, including PSS and SE, is scarce.

Social support refers to an individual being cared for or loved and valued as a part of a social group with reciprocal support and commitment (Wills, 1991). Im et al. (2014) noted that interpersonal stress is related to mental health status of migrant women. Social support can be received from friends, family, colleagues or health professionals (Theofilou, 2012). Support from the organization and from immediate supervisors was also found to facilitate LS among employees (Newman et al., 2015). Research has shown that PSS is a predictor of LS (Zhao et al., 2014; Tonsing, 2013); however, little research has focused on FDWs.

SE refers to one’s understanding of his or her worth or value (Rosenberg, 1979). There are studies about factors related to SE among migrants. For example, Ngocha-Chaderopa and Boon (2016) discovered that a mismatch between qualifications and the demands of work influences migrant employees’ well-being and their work.

SE has been shown to predict LS. For instance, past studies demonstrated that a higher SE leads to a higher LS among college students in various nations (Zhao et al., 2014; Diener and Diener, 1995); however, it is still uncertain whether and how SE affects LS in FWDs. SE also has socially and culturally sanctioned meanings (Peralta-Catipon, 2012). Gripaldo (2005) and his colleagues examined Filipino cultural traits and found that the perception of one’s family relationship is linked with one’s SE. People in collectivistic cultures, such as Asian cultures (Church, 1987), are profoundly family oriented. Considering the above conceptual and socio-cultural characteristics, it is worth examining SE in this LS study.

Regarding demographic variables the study sought to provide data and understand whether and how demographic variables affect LS.

Previous literature on migration found a relationship between SE, PSS and LS, but the populations studied were university students and there were no studies addressing FDWs (e.g., Kong et al., 2013). Therefore, this pilot study examines three aspects: (a) the level of LS, SE, PSS, and demographic variables among live-in FDWs; (b) the correlation of the independent variables with LS; and (c) the multivariate impact of PSS, SE and demographic characteristics on LS.

Methodology

A survey was conducted in 2014 to examine the influence of PSS, SE and demographic characteristics on LS among live-in FDWs in Hong Kong. LS was measured by the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et. al., 1985), a widely used scale with good internal reliability and consistency (Diener et al., 1985), while the PSS was measured by the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) (Zimet et al., 1988). The MSPSS contains 12 items that examine PSS from three sources: friends, a special person and family. Each source comprises four statements, and the overall MSPSS score is the summation of all sub-scales; the higher the score, the higher the PSS level. The MSPSS has good test–retest reliability, internal reliability and robust factorial validity in diverse populations (Cecil et al., 1995; Zimet et al., 1988). The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965) was used to measure SE; the higher the score, the higher the level of SE.

The demographic characteristics and working conditions included age, educational level, marital status, length of residence in Hong Kong, nationality, employer’s family composition, relationship with the employers, working hours per day and whether they received bonus (additional remuneration).

The study was conducted in a service center. Potential participants capable of reading English were given participant information sheets ahead of time and had at least 24 hours to decide whether they would participate in the study. With their consent, data were collected using English questionnaires. A research code was generated to ensure anonymity and confidentiality.

Results

A total of 130 FDWs agreed to participate in the study. Their demographic profiles and working conditions are shown in Table 1. The mean age was 30.36 (standard deviation = 6.24). The percentage of primary, secondary and tertiary or above graduates was 10 percent, 67.7 percent, and 22.3 percent, respectively. Indonesian and Filipinos accounted for 61.5 percent and 38.5 percent of FDWs, respectively. Regarding marital status, half (49.6 percent) were married; 40.3 percent were single and the rest were divorced/separated or widowed. For length of residence in Hong Kong, the mean was 3.84 years. More than one-fourth of respondents (27.7 percent) resided in Hong Kong for less than a year, followed by those residing for 3–4 years (21.0 percent), 1–2 years (17.6 percent), 5–6 years (16.0 percent), 7–10 years (10.9 percent) and more than 10 years (6.7 percent).

Table 1.

Socio-demographic characteristics and working conditions of live-in foreign domestic workers in Hong Kong.

	Frequency (n)	Valid percent (%)
Age
18–33	89	68.5
34–51	41	31.5
Educational level
Primary	13	10
Secondary	88	67.7
Tertiary	29	22.3
Nationality
Philippines	50	38.5
Indonesia	80	61.5
Marital status
Single and in a relationship	56	43.4
Married	64	49.6
Divorced	9	7.0
Length of residence in Hong Kong (years)
≤10	110	93.3
11–20	9	6.7
Relationship with current employer
Excellent	13	10.7
Satisfied	13	10.7
Good	73	59.8
Unsatisfied	18	14.8
Bad	5	4.1
Employer’s family composition
Family with child(ren)	54	44.3
Family with older adult(s)	30	24.6
Family with both older adult(s) and child(ren)	33	27.0
Others	5	4.1
Working hours
≤12	31	27.2
13–18	74	64.9
19–24	9	5.3
Received bonus?
Yes	39	35.1
No	72	64.9

Overall, FDWs perceived a high support from their social network (5.38 ± 0.96) (Zimet et al., 1988) and had slightly higher than average LS (23.28 ± 5.83) (Diener et al., 1985). However, their levels of SE (17.16 ± 3.31) were found to be about average (15). See Table 2 for the details. Moreover, the results point to a positive relationship between PSS and LS (r = 0.28, p < 0.01). There were no significant associations between SE and PSS (r = 0.61, p > 0.05) or between SE and LS (r = 0.09, p > 0.05). However, there was a significantly positive relationship between educational attainment and SE. Based on group comparisons in terms of marital status, significant differences were found between the married group and the unmarried group. Specifically, compared with their unmarried counterparts, the married participants had lower LS scores (22.23 vs 24.25, t = −1.97, p = 0.05). In multivariate analyses, the results of regression (Table 3) showed that marital status and PSS significantly affected LS (F = (2, 117) = 7.59, p < 0. 05, R²= 0.12). It should be noted that PSS has more influence on LS than does marital status.

Table 2.

Association of perceived social support (PSS), self-esteem (SE) and life satisfaction (LS).

	LS	PSS	Possible score ranges	Means (standard deviation)
LS			(Satisfaction with Life Scale) 5–35	23.28 (5.83)
PSS	0.28**		(Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support) 1–7	5.38 (0.96)
SE	0.09	0.61	(Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale) 0–30	17.16 (3.31)

Note: **p < 0.01.

Table 3.

Regression analyses of life satisfaction.

Constructs		F	R	R²	B	Standard error	β	t	p
1	(constant)	10.07	0.28^a	0.07^a	14.11
1	Perceived social support (PSS)	10.07	0.28^a	0.07^a	0.142	0.045	0.28	3.17	0.002
2	(constant)	7.59	0.34^b	0.12^b	14.93
	PSS				0.146	0.044	0.29	3.32	0.001
	Married				−2.22	1.01	−0.19	−2.19	0.031

Notes: ^apredictors: (constant), PSS; and ^bpredictors: (constant), PSS, married; dependent variable: Satisfaction with Life Scale; p < 0.05.

Discussion and conclusion

This study addresses an under-researched area by examining variables influencing LS; in particular, PSS and marital status were identified as variables that influence LS.

Specifically, this study echoed previous ones and demonstrated that PSS can boost the LS in one’s migratory experience (Tonsing, 2013; Kooshair et al., 2014; Theofilou, 2012) and can reduce the impact of stress (Kooshair et al., 2014). The findings also echo the previous studies in which social support networks linked with mental health can help reduce acculturation stress and depression (Im et al., 2014).

Different from previous research (for example, Pinquart and Sörensen, 2004), this study showed that there was no significant link between SE and LS; nonetheless, FDWs generally reported LS despite lower SE. There are several possible reasons for this dynamic: first, FDW’s usually have various domestic duties that require different skills. These multi-tasking requirements are challenging and some of them are new, which may cause stress. Second, it is not uncommon for FDWs to attend to the needs of several family members in their employer’s households, which may affect their SE, which, in turn had a significantly positive relationship with educational attainment. For FDWs, cognitive input is involved in the adjustment to new environments and familiarity with requirements. For further studies, it is worth studying variables including job satisfaction, vocational and career choices (e.g., Richardson, 2009).

Marital status is one of the main factors affecting LS. There were significant group differences in LS between married and unmarried groups. The findings suggest that married participants had lower LS than unmarried ones. A possible explanation for this is that married FDWs, who have been living apart from their families and working abroad for a long period, may regret not being able to directly take care of their own family, which is the role they and their family members commonly expect of them. Hence, working overseas may decrease LS among FDWs, particularly among married ones, despite being able to provide their families with financial support.

Furthermore, in collectivistic cultures, couples and their families can be viewed as extensions of family. According to Peralta-Catipon (2012), the social world of Filipinos is profoundly family oriented. Familial influence, tradition and expectation are strong, though couples and their families can be sources of social support to the married FDWs (Gripaldo, 2005), which may explain why married FDWs had lower LS.

Nevertheless, further study is needed to examine whether and how marital satisfaction influences LS among FDWs as the former was revealed to affect the mental health of married migrant women (Im et al., 2014). It is also worth investigating the effect of the use of less costly communication devices on PSS and LS among FDWs with different marital statuses. There may be cultural differences in the perception of marriage, and these differences may provide more information on the relationship between marriage and LS in future research.

There are several implications based on the findings. First, it is imperative that relevant authorities and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) strengthen psychological and social support, occupational counseling, and relevant services for FDWs to facilitate a smooth transition and adjustment in Hong Kong and the work environment.

Second, considering the link between educational attainment and SE, it is recommended that employers support additional training that would upgrade the skills of their FDWs. Since FDWs who come to Hong Kong have received pre-deployment basic skills training in their home countries (Indonesia and the Philippines), they would benefit from more advanced training programs relevant to the nature of their employment. An example is specific training for those who take care of young children and those with special needs as well as older adults.

Aside from employment-related training, there are other courses that could potentially enhance the FDWs’ SE. For instance, several NGOs in Hong Kong offer courses in financial literacy and wellness programs. It is recommended that information on such programs be made more readily available to improve FDWs’ access to them. It would be helpful if employers are encouraged to support their FDWs’ pursuit of venues for personal development.

In addition, it is recommended that NGOs or relevant authorities set up support centers (service centers) for foreign workers, including FDWs. These centers could offer consultation and counseling services and provide FDWs access to information and communication technology devices, particularly computers and wi-fi facilities, that may contribute to enhancing their PSS and LS.

Future studies may benefit from expanding their coverage to include FDW participants from other countries, such as Thailand, Nepal, Sri Lanka or Bangladesh, for a more comprehensive picture of LS among live-in domestic workers in Hong Kong.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this paper.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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