Judaean/Idumaean Inscriptions and New Testament Studies: A Review of Corpus Inscriptionum Iudaeae/Palaestinae IV/1-2

The arrival of the latest CIIP volume ¹ is of great benefit to our understanding of Jewish epigraphy. It continues the series of publications of all surviving written inscriptions from Judaea/Palestine from earliest times to the rise of Islam. ² The publications continue to be of the highest quality, the discussion of each inscription containing a photograph, text, translation, commentary and full bibliography. This volume also provides a very useful index of personal names which covers all of the first four volumes.

This latest volume, covering Judaea and Idumaea, is of particular importance, treating as it does the material from places such as Lydda, Bethel, Jericho, Bethlehem, Herodium, Masada and Qumran, as well as smaller NT places such as the town of Ephraim (Jn 11.54). The two part-volumes here published, however, are not the complete volume IV. In 2013 Professor Eck informed me of a recent discovery of more than a thousand ostraca from fourth to third century bce in Tel Maresha, to be included in this volume. More details are provided here. The preface promises two further part-volumes dedicated to these ostraca (IV/1, p. v). The treatment of the other Maresha material (which is included already in the publication of IV/2) here states that approximately 500 ostraca from the Ptolemaic period are in Aramaic (400 of which have been discovered since 2000) and 720 are in Greek (IV/2, pp. 939-40). Many of these come from two particular networks of underground rooms (known as Subterranean Complexes 89 and 169). ³

As indicated by these statistics of the Maresha ostraca, the regions covered in this volume offer further evidence of bilingualism. The boundary-stones of Gezer (CIIP 2764-76) are mostly in both Greek and Hebrew/Aramaic, with for example ‘land of Gezer, (property of) Alcius’ (thm gzr ΑΛΚΙΟΥ) in CIIP 2768. Various ossuaries have names in both Greek and Aramaic characters (e.g. CIIP 2826, 3762, 3847). There are interesting transliterations. One hitherto unpublished inscription on a stone altar expresses ‘compassion for Sohemos’ with the Graeco-Aramaic Ραηιμμυ Σοημωι, probably rendering a form of the root rhm in Greek characters (CIIP 3504). Conversely, the Greek name Dositheus can be written in Aramaic characters (CIIP 3763). One amulet, from the late-Byzantine or early Islamic era, has a series of nomina barbara (including the popular Abrasax) in both Greek and Christian Palestinian Aramaic (CIIP 3856). More conventionally, a mosaic on a bema in Anab (CIIP 3864) refers to Ἀββᾶς Ὀλπιανός followed by the prayer ‘Hear the request of of the priest Haninah and the priest … Girgun’ in CPA (šmw^ϲ šy[lt] qš hnynh qš [–] gyrgwn). ⁴ Among the later inscriptions, a few are in Georgian (3201-204) and one in (unfortunately indecipherable) Armenian (3227).

Copious inscriptions in the corpus for this region provide evidence of military presence. In addition to the well-known Legio X Fretensis (CIIP 2813 in this volume), four inscriptions attest the Legio V Macedonica, which was part of Vespasian’s army during the first Jewish war, and of which two centuriae – of Pollio and of Stiminius – are mentioned (CIIP 3094-97). ⁵ There is evidence of an auxiliary cohort – possibly two cohorts – of the Bracaraugustani (CIIP 3098, 3827). ⁶ A further inscription records the presence, in work done on a water channel, of detachments (vexillationes) from the Legio V Macedonica along with the Leg. XI Claudia (CIIP 3198), perhaps both (given the findspot near Bethar) employed during the Bar Kochba revolt. Additionally, reference to the Legio VI Ferrata is elegantly inscribed in a limestone plaque in Beit Guvrin (Eleutheropolis), Eck noting that it is unusual to find this legion so far south, since it is normally based in the north of Judaea (CIIP 3476). Eck also publishes the editio princeps of another inscription, from Khirbet Birker near Kibbutz Ruhama, probably referring to this legion (CIIP 3839). On a smaller scale, near Bethlehem, there was an aqueduct leading to Jerusalem, originally built by Herod the Great. There are also, however, numerous Roman inscriptions on the materials, which scholars now recognize as repairs made to the Herodian aqueduct, rather than a new Roman construction. The centuries of Antonius Long(in)us, Capito(ni/li)nus, Clarus and others (around 25 named centuriae in all) are attested for this work. ⁷ Another, perhaps poignant inscription (CIIP 2801) may refer to conflict: ‘Yoezer has been uprooted, the guards have entered’ (yw^ϲzr ^ͻt^ϲqr ^ϲlw mṭrn). ⁸

Moving from the military to the priestly sphere, there is further evidence in addition to that in previous volumes for the mishmarot, or priestly courses (cf. Lk. 1.5, 8-9). This evidence comes in one of the Caiaphas inscriptions, only first published in 2011: ‘Mariam daughter of Yeshuʿa son of Qypʾ, priest of (the course of) Maʿaziya, from Beit ʿImri’ (CIIP 3295). We thus have the information that the Caiaphas priests came from the last of the 24 priestly divisions (1 Chron. 24.7-18). The other Caiaphas inscriptions are found in previous volumes (CIIP 461 and 463), as are other relevant inscriptions about the priestly courses. ⁹ We also have a reference to a scribe: ‘Yoezer the son of Yehohanan, the scribe (swpr)’ (CIIP 2683). Other offices mentioned include agoranomoi (e.g. 2784, 3515): these are dated, and so some of the office-bearers can be placed in an absolute chronology (e.g. in CIIP 3671-86). Also attested are parnasim, here featuring as early as Bar Kochba’s time (CIIP 3426). In this same inscription (on a lead weight), Simon ben Kos(i)ba – as his name is spelled – is ‘Prince of Israel’ (nśy yśrʾl) as on his coinage and his letter written on wood.

A number of familiar names appear on ossuaries and sarcophagi: Yehuda son of Eleazar (CIIP 2681), Salome (2680), Ioses (2688, 3484), Annas (2692), Thomas son of Judas (2699), Hananiyah son of Mati (2718), Simon son of Eleazar (2723) and Simon son of Zechariah (2798; cf. Simon also in 2753, 2781, 2819-20, 2830-31). One tomb contains a combination of a traditional Jewish name with one decidedly not: Eleazar Goliath, the latter presumably a nickname because of Eleazar’s height (2816); cf. Yoezer Goliath in CIIP 2823-25. In the same Goliath family tomb, there is one ‘Mariame (Μαριάμη) wife of Judas’ (2815), and another Mary, this time with a Hellenized/Latinized spelling in Aramaic/Hebrew – mryh (2821). Elsewhere Mary is spelled Μαρυαμ (2720), as well as in Aramaic letters as mrym (2797). Jacob appears as a first-century bce to first-century ce name (3890-91). There is copious information about the name Zenon in the commentary to CIIP 3484 where it appears (cf. Inf. Gos. Thom. 9.3). The ‘Eunice’ of 2 Timothy is paralleled in a second- to first-century funerary inscription in Maresha (3617, the commentary noting three other known cases); ¹⁰ another rare Pauline name, Persis (cf. Rom. 16.12), appears twice in a Maresha tomb (CIIP 3581 and 3589). Other toponymics also appear, as in ‘Pelatya from Jerusalem’ and ‘Simon from Jerusalem’ in CIIP 2829 and 2831, both inscriptions from Jericho.

In addition to the monumental inscriptions and the names engraved on ossuaries, there are large amounts of graffiti. These range from low-brow abecedaries, such as CIIP 3330. This Herodium alphabet has ‘in Jerusalem’ appended to it, indicating interestingly that Herodium was considered part of the metropolis. At a higher register, in the same Herodium theatre there is an etched quotation from Homer (3329), although it is a mangled quotation so perhaps not so elevated after all.

On a different note, scholarly interest in nomina sacra and other monograms could take account of the enduring interest in these symbols in contexts other than manuscripts. CIIP 2677 comes from a sixth-century church near Jericho, and the photograph has clearly a tau-rho symbol, or staurogram (). ¹¹ CIIP 3269 contains instances of the chi-rho symbol (☧). According to the description of CIIP 3188 (the photograph is unclear), there is a combination of the christogram and staurogram (☧). Because there is a large number of Christian inscriptions in this volume, the more common nomina sacra such as Θ(ΕΟ)Σ, Κ(ΥΡΙΟ)Σ Χ(ΡΙΣΤΟ)Σ and Ι(ΗΣΟΥ)Σ are numerous. It would be interesting to see how the evolving patterns of epigraphic monograms compares with their appearance in manuscripts; this is not, as far as I am aware, a common feature of the text-critical discussion of scribal habits. Since many of these inscriptions found in situ can be more securely dated than can manuscripts, the epigraphic evidence could perhaps enable scholars to locate manuscripts in a more precise timeframe.

In addition to the publications of known inscriptions, newly published material includes a series of ecclesiastical epitaphs from around 500–600 ce (CIIP 3434-45). Two new fragments have a tantalizingly unidentifiable script (CIIP 3728-29). ¹² Another first-century ‘Mary’ is supplied in CIIP 3837, specifically ‘Mary daughter of Ramon(?)’, the latter a rarity. ¹³ A gem of uncertain date has the invocation ‘One God, help Manna!’ (CIIP 3826). ¹⁴

One curiosity, of interest in connection with apocryphal Christian legend, is a painting of the crucifixion, with the individual figures labelled with names (CIIP 2851). Jesus is on the cross in the centre, and on the left side of the picture is Δυσμᾶς ὁ λῄστης, Dysmas being the traditional name of the penitent thief; on the right hand side is the other, Gestas. Mary and John are present, as are Longinus (who pierced Jesus side in Jn 19.34) and one ‘Lamachus’, apparently offering hyssop. The names of Dysmas, Gestas and Longinus are well attested in, for example, the Gospel of Nicodemus or the Acts of Pilate. Lamachus, however, is an extreme rarity. ¹⁵ Elsewhere from the same monastery are a painting of Mary, Zechariah and John the Baptist (also labelled), and a painted inscription of Ps. 85/86.8-13 in Greek (CIIP 2852-53). Elsewhere Ps. 42/41.2 (‘As the deer pants for the water …’) is found on a mosaic pavement (CIIP 2737), and a Byzantine painting glosses Jesus’ ascension with Ps. 24/23.7, 9 (‘Lift up your gates …!’). One fresco links Jn 11.25-26 (paraphrased) with Mt. 11.28 (CIIP 3166). Another monastery has inscriptions of both Ps. 106/105.4-5 and 1 Cor. 15.52-54 (3818-19).

The CIIP volumes are geographically organized and are not a corpus specifically of Jewish inscriptions, hence there are a number of inscriptions with no particular Jewish or Christian content, such as one spell simply involving Greek mythology (2837). There is also Samaritan material, as in the acclamations of God in Samaritan script in CIIP 3079, and 3081: ‘Yhwh is a hero in war, Yhwh is his name! Yhwh his guide – come in, blessed of Yhwh! There is none like the God of Jeshurun!’ For lexicographers and zoologists, there are many labelled animal pictures of leopards, lions, lynxes and others (CIIP 3532-70; cf. 2789). The many boundary-stones and masons’ marks will appeal to those with different interests. ¹⁶

Overall, this is a superb volume, with remarkably few errors considering the numerous fonts involved and the complexity of the typography, where there is so much alternation of text and photography. I noted only a very few slips. ¹⁷ The comments and bibliographies are invariably helpful. The excellent news is that in 2017 the project, already funded for 12 years by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, was granted a further three years’ funding by the DFG. It is hoped that funding will be forthcoming for the completion of this massive and ambitious project. We already have nearly 4000 inscriptions published. Volume IV/3-4 will have a further 1200-1500 inscriptions in the shape of the ostraca. As noted in a previous review, there will then follow volumes V and VI, containing inscriptions from the Galilee and the Negev. (The project was initially envisaged as including the inscriptions from Samaria and the Golan, but this is now impossible, at least in the present, because of UNESCO regulations.) With approximately 8,000-10,000 inscriptions to be covered in all, we are a long way from the initial scope envisaged for the project, viz. that it would cover ‘1800 or more’! ¹⁸