This study explores how French adults and children aged four and six years talk and gesture about voluntary motion, examining (1) how they encode path and manner in speech, (2) how they encode this information in accompanying gestures; and (3) whether gestures are co-expressive with speech or express other information. When path and manner are equally relevant, children's and adults' speech and gestures both focus on path, rather than on manner. Moreover, gestures are predominantly co-expressive with speech at all ages. However, when they are non-redundant, adults tend to gesture about path while talking about manner, whereas children gesture about both path and manner while talking about path. The discussion highlights implications for our understanding of speakers' representations and their development.
Alibali, M.W. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1993). Gesture-speech mismatch and mechanisms of learning: What the hands reveal about a child's state of mind. Cognitive Psychology, 25, 468-523.
2.
Allen, S., Özyürek, A., Brown, A., Furman, R. & Ishizuka, T. (2003). Early speech about manner and path in Turkish and English: Universal or language-specific? In B. Beachley, A. Brown, & F. Conlin et al. (Eds), Proceedings of the BUCLD27 (pp. 63-72). Somerville, MA : Cascadilla Press.
3.
Allen, S., Özyürek, A., Kita, S., Brown, A., Furman, R., Ishizuka, T., et al. (2007). Language-specific and universal influences in children's syntactic packaging of Manner and Path: A comparison of English, Japanese, and Turkish. Cognition, 102(1), 16-48.
4.
Aurnague, M. (1995). Orientation in French spatial expressions: Formal representations and inferences. Journal of Semantics, 12(3), 249-267.
5.
Aurnague, M. (1996). Les noms de localisation interne: tentative de caractérisation sémantique à partir de données du basque et du français. Cahiers de Lexicologie,69, 159-192.
6.
Aurnague, M., Hickmann, M. & Vieu, L. (Eds) ( 2007). The categorization of spatial entities in language and cognition. Amsterdam: Benjamins .
7.
Berman, R. & Slobin, D.I. (1994). Relating events in narrative: A crosslinguistic developmental study. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
8.
Borillo, A. (1998). L'espace et son expression en français. Paris: Ophrys.
9.
Bowerman, M. (1982). Starting to talk worse: Clues to language acquisition from children's late speech errors. In S. Strauss & R. Stavy (Eds), U-shaped behavioral growth (pp. 101-146). New York: Academic Press.
10.
Bowerman, M. (1996). The origins of children's spatial semantic categories: Cognitive versus linguistic determinants. In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (Eds), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 145-176). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
11.
Bowerman, M. (2007). Containment, support, and beyond: Constructing topological spatial categories in first language acquisition. In M. Aurnague, M. Hickmann & L. Vieu (Eds), The categorization of spatial entities in language and cognition (pp. 177-203). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
12.
Bowerman, M. & Choi, S. (2001). Shaping meanings for language: Universal and language-specific in the acquisition of spatial semantic categories. In M. Bowerman & S. C. Levinson (Eds), Language acquisition and conceptual development (pp. 475-511). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
13.
Bowerman, M. & Choi, S. (2003). Space under construction: Language-specific spatial categorization in first language acquisition. In D. Gentner & S. Goldin-Meadow (Eds), Language in mind (pp. 387-428). Cambridge, MA : MIT Press.
14.
Brown, A. (2007). Crosslinguistic influence in first and second languages: Convergence in speech and gesture. Unpublished PhD thesis, Boston University, and MPI for Psycholinguistics, Nijmegen.
15.
Brown, A. & Gullberg, M. (2008). Bidirectional crosslinguistic influence in L1-L2 encoding of Manner in speech and gesture: A study of Japanese speakers of English. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 30(2), 225-251.
16.
Brugman, H. & Kita, S. (1995). Impact of digital video technology on transcription: A case of spontaneous gesture transcription. KODIKAS/CODE: Ars Semeiotica, 18, 95-112.
17.
Capirci, O., Contaldo, A., Caselli, M.C. & Volterra, V. (2005). From action to language through gesture: A longitudinal perspective. Gesture, 5(1-2), 155-177.
18.
Capirci, O., Iverson, J.M., Pizzuto, E. & Volterra, V. (1996). Gestures and words during the transition to two-word speech. Journal of Child Language, 3, 645-675.
19.
Choi, S. & Bowerman, M. (1991). Learning to express motion events in English and Korean: The influence of language-specific lexicalization patterns. Cognition, 41, 83-121.
20.
Church, R.B. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (1986). The mismatch between gesture and speech as an index of transitional knowledge. Cognition, 23(1), 43-71.
21.
Clark, H.H. (1996). Using language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
22.
De Ruiter, J.-P. (2000). The production of gesture and speech. In D. McNeill (Ed.), Language and gesture (pp. 284-311). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
23.
De Ruiter, J.-P. (2007). Postcards from the mind: The relationship between speech, gesture and thought. Gesture, 7(1), 21-38.
24.
Duncan, S. (1996). Grammatical form and èthinking-for-speaking' in Mandarin Chinese and English: An analysis based on speech-accompanying gesture. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of Chicago.
25.
Duncan, S. (2005). Co-expressivity of speech and gesture: Manner of motion in Spanish, English, and Chinese. In C. Chang, M. J. Houser, Y. Kim, D. Mortensen , M. Park-Doob & M. Toosarvandani (Eds), Proceedings of the 27th Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistic Society, 2001 (General Session and parasession on Gesture and Language, pp. 353-370). Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Linguistics Society.
26.
Goldin-Meadow, S. (2003). Hearing gesture: How our hands help us think. Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press.
27.
Goldin-Meadow, S. & Butcher, C. (2003). Pointing toward two-word speech in young children . In S. Kita (Ed.), Pointing: Where language, culture, and cognition meet (pp. 85-107). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
28.
Guidetti, M. (2002). The emergence of pragmatics: Forms and functions of conventional gestures in young French children. First Language , 22(3), 265-286.
29.
Guidetti, M. (2005). Yes or no? How young French children combine gestures and speech to agree and refuse. Journal of Child Language , 32(4), 911-924.
30.
Gullberg, M. (1998). Gesture as a communication strategy in second language discourse. A study of learners of French and Swedish. Lund: Lund University Press.
31.
Gullberg, M. (1999). Communication strategies, gestures, and grammar . Acquisition et Interaction en Langue Etrangère, 2, 61-71.
32.
Hickmann, M. (2003). Children's discourse: Person, space and time across languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
33.
Hickmann, M. (2006). The relativity of motion in first language acquisition . In M. Hickmann & S. Robert (Ed.), Space across languages: Linguistic systems and cognitive categories (pp. 281-308). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
34.
Hickmann, M. (2007). Static and dynamic location in French: Developmental and crosslinguistic perspectives. In M. Aurnague , M. Hickmann & L. Vieu (Eds), The categorization of spatial entities in language and cognition (pp. 205-231). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
35.
Hickmann, M. & Hendriks, H. (2006). Static and dynamic location in French and English . First Language, 26(1), 103-135.
36.
Hickmann, M., Hendriks, H., Champaud, C. (2008). Typological constraints on motion in French child language. In J. Guo, E. Lieven, S. Ervin-Tripp , N. Budwig, S. Özçalöşkan & K. Nakamura (Eds), Crosslinguistic approaches to the psychology of language: Research in the tradition of Dan Isaac Slobin. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
37.
Hickmann, M., Taranne, P. & Bonnet, P. (submitted). Path and manner in French child language. Journal of Child Language.
38.
Jancovic, M., Devoe, S. & Wiener, M. (1975). Age-related changes in hand and arm movements as nonverbal communication: Some conceptualizations and an empirical exploration . Child Development, 46(4), 922-928.
39.
Kendon, A. (1980). Gesticulation and speech: Two aspects of the process of utterance. In M. R. Key (Ed.), The relationship of verbal and nonverbal communication (pp. 207-227). The Hague: Mouton.
40.
Kendon, A. (2004). Gesture. Visible action as utterance. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
41.
Kita, S. & Özyürek, A. (2003). What does cross-linguistic variation in semantic coordination of speech and gesture reveal?: Evidence for an interface representation of spatial thinking and speaking. Journal of Memory and Language , 48(1), 16-32.
42.
Kita, S. & Özyürek, A. (2007). How does spoken language shape iconic gestures? In S. D. Duncan, J. Cassell & E. T. Levy (Eds), Gesture and the dynamic dimension of language. Essays in honor of David McNeill (pp. 67-74). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
43.
Kita, S., Van Gijn, I. & Van der Hulst, H. (1998). Movement phases in signs and co-speech gestures, and their transcription by human coders. In I. Wachsmuth & M. Fröhlich (Eds), Gesture and Sign Language in Human-Computer interaction (pp. 23-35). Berlin: Springer.
44.
Kopecka, A. (2006). The semantic structure of motion verbs in French. Typological perspectives. In M. Hickmann & S. Robert (Eds), Space in languages. Linguistic systems and cognitive categories (pp. 83-101). Amsterdam : Benjamins.
45.
Levinson, S. C. & Wilkins, D. P. (Eds) (2006). Grammars of space. Explorations in cognitive diversity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
46.
Mayberry, R.I. & Nicoladis, E. (2000). Gesture reflects language development: Evidence from bilingual children. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 9(6), 192-196.
47.
McNeill, D. (1985). So you think gestures are nonverbal? Psychological Review, 92(3), 271-295.
48.
McNeill, D. (1992). Hand and mind. What the hands reveal about thought . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
49.
McNeill, D. (2000). Imagery in motion event descriptions: Gestures as part of thinking-for-speaking in three languages. In M. L. Juge & J. L. Moxley (Eds), Proceedings of the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society, 1997 (General session and parasession on pragmatics and grammatical structure, pp. 255-267). Berkeley, CA: Berkeley Linguistics Society.
50.
McNeill, D. (2005). Gesture and thought. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
51.
McNeill, D. & Duncan, S.D. (2000). Growth points in thinking-for-speaking. In D. McNeill (Ed.), Language and gesture (pp. 141-161). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
52.
Nicoladis, E. (2002). Some gestures develop in conjunction with spoken language development and others don't: Evidence from bilingual preschoolers . Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 26(4), 241-266.
53.
Nicoladis, E. & Brisard, F. (2002). Encoding motion in gestures and speech: Are there differences in bilingual children's French and English? In E. V. Clark (Ed.), Space in language. Location, motion, path, and manner. The Proceedings of the 31st Stanford Child Language Research Forum (pp. 60-68). Stanford: CSLI Publications.
54.
Nicoladis, E. & Genesee, F. (1996). Bilingual communication strategies and language dominance. In A. Stringfellow, D. Cahana-Amitay, E. Hughes & A. Zukowski (Eds), Proceedings of the 20th Annual Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 518-527). Somerville, CA: Cascadilla Press.
55.
Nicoladis, E., Mayberry, R.I. & Genesee, F. (1999). Gesture and early bilingual development. Developmental Psychology, 35(2), 514-526.
56.
Özçalöşkan, S. & Goldin-Meadow, S. (2005). Gesture is at the cutting edge of early language development. Cognition, 96(3), B101—B113.
57.
Özyürek, A., Kita, S., Allen, S.E.M., Furman, R. & Brown, A. (2005). How does linguistic framing of events influence co-speech gestures? Insights from crosslinguistic variations and similarities . Gesture,5(1/2), 219-240.
58.
Piérart, B. (1978). Genèse et structuration des marqueurs de relations spatiales entre trois et dix ans. Cahiers de l'Institut de Linguistique (Special Issue: èStructures cognitives et organisation du langage'), 5(1-2), 41-59.
59.
Pine, K.J., Lufkin, N. & Messer, D. (2004). More gestures than answers: Children learning about balance. Developmental Psychology, 40(6), 1059-1067.
60.
Senghas, A., Kita, S. & Özyürek, A. (2004). Children creating core properties of language: Evidence from an emerging sign language in Nicaragua. Science , 305(5691), 1779-1782.
61.
Seyfeddinipur, M. (2006). Disfluency: Interrupting speech and gesture. Unpublished PhD thesis, Radboud University, Nijmegen.
62.
Slobin, D.I. (1996). From çthought and languageé to çthinking for speakingé . In J. J. Gumperz & S. C. Levinson (Eds), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 70-96). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
63.
Slobin, D.I. (2004). The many ways to search for a frog. In S. Strömqvist & L. Verhoeven (Eds), Relating events in narrative: Typological and contextual perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum .
64.
Slobin, D.I. (2006). What makes manner of motion salient? Explorations in linguistic typology, discourse, and cognition. In M. Hickmann & S. Robert (Eds), Space in languages. Linguistic systems and cognitive categories (pp. 59-81). Amsterdam: Benjamins.
65.
Strömqvist, S. & Verhoeven, L. (Eds) (2004). Relating events in narrative: Typological and contextual perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum.
66.
Talmy, L. (2000). Toward a cognitive semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
67.
Vandeloise, C. (1991). Spatial prepositions: A case study in French. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
68.
Verjat, I. (1991). Le statut cognitif des marqueurs èdevant' et èderrière' chez l'enfant français. L'Année Psychologique, 91, 207-230.
69.
Volterra, V., Caselli, M.C., Capirci, O. & Pizzuto, E. (2005). Gesture and the emergence and development of language . In M. Tomasello & D. I. Slobin (Eds), Beyond nature-nurture: Essays in honor of Elisabeth Bates (pp. 3-40). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
