Global migration: The need for culturally competent school psychologists

Abstract

Never before have more children lived away from their home countries. Given the unique social, emotional, and academic needs of children who have migrated, school psychologists must be well prepared to meet these growing demands. Consequently, school psychology training programs must invest in the preparation of culturally competent future school psychologists. In this article, we review relevant literature regarding children, migration, and school psychology and then describe a model training program that was developed to prepare school psychologists in Texas, where there are a significant number of migrant children from Mexico and South America. Broader implications for training school psychologist in the areas of cultural and linguistic diversity are discussed.

Keywords

School psychology migration immigration diversity culture international

Global migration is steadily increasing as more people than ever are living abroad. Between 1990 and 2010, there was an increase of over 58 million migrants¹ internationally from 2.9% to 3.1% (United Nations, 2013). In 2013, approximately 232 million people, or 3.2% of the world’s population, were international migrants (International Migration Wallchart, 2013). With migration comes a host of educational and mental health challenges and school psychologists across the world must be well prepared to serve culturally and linguistically diverse (CLD) children and families. For example, the American Psychological Association (APA, 2012) has identified a number of issues related to immigration and educational settings such as appropriate assessment and placement, mental health needs of learners, and the social-emotional impacts of discrimination.

The needs of migrant children and children of immigrants are well documented and significant. For example, children of immigrants are significantly more likely to live in poverty than children of native-born parents (Dettlaff, Vidal de Haymes, Velazquez, Mindell, & Bruce, 2009), which may subsequently impact their health, cognitive and language development, and academic performance (Capps & Fortuny, 2006). Access to social services may be limited for immigrants who fear deportation, separation from their children who are citizens, and interference with the process of becoming a citizen (Velazquez & Dettlaff, 2011). Relocating to a new country combined with the loss of existing support systems can make immigrants susceptible to stress, depression, and other mental health issues (Dettlaff et al., 2009). Refugee youth who flee persecution in their native countries often experience physical and mental health challenges during displacement and may continue to suffer trauma after resettlement (Fazel, Reed, Panter-Brick, & Stein, 2012). The educational background of these youth may include a disrupted education due to migration or minimal schooling in their home country, which may lead to academic concerns once resettled and placed in school. These findings underscore the need for school personnel including school psychologists to receive advanced training on issues and policies affecting immigrant children and families and for schools to hire culturally competent and bilingual staff (Dettlaff et al., 2009).

In this article, we highlight a grant-funded initiative to address many of these concerns in Texas. This program may serve as a model for the preparation of culturally competent school psychologists in countries that demonstrate similar needs. In order to provide more and better-qualified bilingual school psychologists to serve the growing population of Spanish-speaking children, Texas State University in the USA has implemented Project SUPERB (Scholars Using Psychology and Education to Reach Bilinguals), which adds a new training and certification track in bilingual school psychology to its existing National Association of School Psychologists-approved specialist-level program. Project SUPERB recruits, prepares, and supports graduate students in specialized bilingual-focused coursework, supervised bilingual field experiences (practicum and internship) at partner sites, and language/cultural immersion experiences to promote multicultural awareness and build professional Spanish vocabulary in the area of education and psychology.

Review of the literature

Impact of migration on mental health

When relocating to a new country, whether migrants leave voluntarily or involuntarily, they often experience significant stressors that adversely influence their mental health and well-being. The transition to living in a new country can be extremely difficult when one does not speak the language, have a job, housing, and/or a support system. Findings from a meta-analysis conducted by Das-Munshi, Leavey, Stansfeld, and Prince (2012) suggested that migrants who struggled financially were more likely to screen positive for mental health disorders than migrants who maintained a stable socioeconomic position or who were upwardly mobile. Issues such as one’s professional and/or educational credentials not transferring to another country and leaving support systems behind in one’s native country contributed to downward mobility and underemployment. Additionally, children and adolescents who flee persecution and resettle often endure great physical and mental challenges during displacement and endure continuing hardships after arrival (Fazel et al., 2012; Stermac, Elgie, Clarke, & Dunlap, 2012).

The three stages of migration – pre-migration, migration, and post-migration – can impact migrant youths’ physical and emotional functioning (Chan, Mercer, Yue, Wong, & Griffiths, 2009). In the pre-migration stage, children leaving less developed countries may face health issues due to limited medical care and malnutrition. Exposure to violence and trauma may also predispose them to mental health problems such as depression and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). During the migration process, those entering another country without proper documentation are vulnerable to physical violence or sexual abuse. Unfortunately, encounters with violence, robbery, and sexual assault are very common during migration (Solis, 2003). Chan et al. (2009) reported that, ‘the impact of post-migration on migrant children’s mental health depends on the reasons for migration and the associated change of socioeconomic status post-migration’ (p. 47). Factors including depression, grief or anxiety, separation from support systems, inadequate language proficiency, and disparities in social, professional, and economic status may place migrant children at-risk for impaired adjustment to a new country.

Direct experience with traumatic events is associated with an increased likelihood of psychological disturbance in refugee children (Fazel et al., 2012; Geltman et al., 2005). A longitudinal study of Iranian refugee youth in Sweden (Almqvist & Broberg, 1999) found that pre-existing factors such as delayed development, long-term illness, or psychological problems predicted mental health concerns, poor social adjustment, and low self-worth three and a half years after arrival, although the absence of these factors was a strong predictor of positive emotional well-being. This finding highlights the need for mental health services following migration to prevent further issues from developing and current issues from worsening. With proper care, it is possible that these refugee youth would not display negative adjustment and functioning several years after their arrival. Other factors such as being unaccompanied upon entry to a new country put refugee youth at-risk for psychological disorders. This finding emerged in several studies in various countries including the Netherlands, Belgium, and the United Kingdom (Bean, Derluyn, Eurelings-Bontekoe, Broekaert, & Spinhoven, 2007; Derluyn, Broekaert, & Schuyten, 2008; Hodes, Jagdev, Chandra, & Cunniff, 2008). Additionally, accompanied children who were subsequently separated from their families were also at-risk for poor mental health (Hjern, Angel, & Jeppson, 1998). With appropriate training, school psychologists are uniquely positioned to address these pre-existing factors and subsequent trauma to assist immigrant youth in developing positive coping skills.

The new communities migrant youth enter may also influence their adjustment and mental health status. A perceived sense of safety at school was associated with a low risk of PTSD (Geltman et al., 2005) and an increased sense of school belonging served as a protective factor against depression (Kia-Keating & Ellis, 2007; Rousseau, Drapeau, & Platt, 2004) and anxiety (Sujoldzic, Peternel, Kulenovic, & Terzic, 2006). Experiences with discrimination may also influence the mental health of migrants; perceptions of discrimination among Somali adolescents in the USA predicted depression and PTSD (Ellis, MacDonald, Lincoln, & Cabral, 2008). Similarly, bullying and social isolation at school among Iranian refugee youth in Sweden was associated with difficulties adapting to their new environment (Almqvist & Brandell-Forsberg, 1997). These are important findings as schools have the potential to create positive learning environments that welcome migrant and refugee students and protect against mental health issues.

Impact of migration on achievement

For immigrant children and adolescents, entering a new educational system presents many challenges. Language barriers, adjusting to a new curriculum, appropriate grade placement, and learning the cultural norms of a new school system, may affect immigrant and refugee students (Stermac et al., 2012). Nonetheless, existing research, although limited, presents mixed results on the impact of migration on academic achievement. For instance, among Cambodian and Central American youth who experienced traumatic events in their home countries, Rousseau and Drapeau (2000) found an association with greater academic difficulties after resettling. However, in an examination of migrant young adults in Canada following residence in war-torn areas, Stermac et al. (2012) found comparable academic achievement levels between these youth and Canadian-born students. The migrant youth took longer to complete high school, possibly due to inappropriate grade placement, language barriers, and adjustment to a new curriculum. Nonetheless, these students were more academically engaged than Canadian-born students.

Suárez-Orozco et al. (2010) conducted a five-year longitudinal study exploring the academic trajectories of newcomer immigrant youth to the USA. Academic success varied among the students; some performed at high or improving rates over time, although others demonstrated diminishing performance. Therefore, although immigrant youth may experience similar challenges, their academic trajectories may differ significantly. It is important that educators understand the factors that lead to their pathways. Further analysis by Suárez-Orozco et al. (2010) revealed that high-achieving students tended to come from stable home environments, attended well-resourced schools, developed more English language skills, and were documented citizens. Conversely, low-achieving students had been separated from their families, experienced limited or poor quality education prior to migration, attended disadvantaged schools, and had limited English proficiency. Unfortunately, those students who required increased assistance were placed into environments unable to meet their needs. Additional factors that played a role in the academic success of these immigrant youth included the difficulty families encountered finding stable work and living conditions, immigration policies that led to family separation, school mobility, and hopelessness about the future due to undocumented status. Therefore, although education often serves as the main hope for leaving one’s homeland, aspirations are not always matched by access to good quality local schools (Crivello, 2011).

Globally, disproportionate representation in special education, both over-representation and under-representation of particular groups, has emerged (Gabel, Curcic, Powell, Khader, & Albee, 2009). Disproportionality has been defined in the literature as the extent to which membership in a particular group (i.e. gender, race, ethnicity) affects the probability of being placed in a specific disability category (Oswald, Coutinho, Best, & Singh, 1999). For over four decades, the over-representation of African American students in special education in the USA has been documented (Ford, 2012; MacMillan & Reschly, 1998; Zhang, Katsiyannis, Ju, & Roberts, 2014). The international literature on disproportionality also finds ethnic and racial minority groups over-represented in special education. A study conducted in England by Dyson and Gallannaugh (2008) reported that the problem with disproportionality lies in the belief that minority groups have special educational needs, yet the difficulties they experience often manifest due to structural and systemic problems within society and the education system. Researchers in New Zealand found that Māori and Pasifika students (indigenous groups) are disproportionately placed in special education (Matheson, 2006).

Moreover, post-World War II migrant youth including the Italian, Portuguese, Turkish, Greek, Spanish, and ex-Yugoslavian living in Germany faced higher probabilities of placement in special schools than native Germans (Powell, 2006). Linguistic difficulties often encountered by non-German students led to placement in special schools; however, there is no support for the efficacy of these schools in supporting language development and enhancing academic performance. It is evident that disproportionate placement of racial and ethnic groups in special education is a global issue. Thus, the field of school psychology must examine factors contributing to this outcome to better understand how to meet the needs of students who are not disabled but have different educational needs. As a result of their life experiences, immigrant students may be at-risk for disproportionate placement in special education and therefore would benefit from attention to this issue.

A look at Texas public schools

According to the Texas Education Agency’s (TEA) Enrollment in Texas Public Schools report (2014) for the 2013–2014 school year, Hispanic students accounted for the largest percentage of total enrollment (51.8%). This represents an almost 10% increase from the 2003–2004 school year where Hispanic students accounted for 43.8% of the state’s enrollment. Between 2000–2012, the rate of growth in the overall population in Texas was more than twice the rate in the USA as a whole. In the fall of 2011, Texas public school enrollment was 12.8% African American, 50.8% Hispanic, and 30.6% White. In comparison, overall USA public school enrollment was 15.8% African American, 23.7% Hispanic, and 51.7% White. In 2013, 16.5% of the Texas population was foreign-born, with 71.1% of immigrants born in Latin America. Mexico was the birthplace of 58% of the immigrant population living in Texas in 2013 (‘State Immigration Data Profiles’, 2013).

Additionally, the 2014 TEA report showed that the percentage of students participating in bilingual and English as a Second Language (ESL) programs increased from 14% in 2003–2004 to 17.1% in 2013–2014; 90% of students receiving these services are Hispanic. National figures indicate that the percentage of public school students who participated in programs for students identified as English Language Learners (ELLs) in 2002–2003 was higher in Texas (14.9%) than in the USA overall (8.7%). Surprisingly, the percentage of students identified as immigrants decreased steadily from 2.7% in 2003–2004 to 1.4% in 2011–2012, where it remained through 2013–2014. This may be due to increased border control and security efforts. Hispanics represent 60.2% of immigrants in the state; TEA defines students as immigrants who are between 3- and 21-years-old, have not attended school in the US for more than three full academic years, and were not born in any state in the US, Puerto Rico, or the District of Columbia (Texas Education Agency, 2013). Hispanic representation was smaller in gifted and talented programs (41%) and larger in Title I programs (62.7%) than their representation in the overall student population (51.8%) in 2013–2014. Additionally, over 49% of Hispanic students in the state are enrolled in special education.

Need for culturally competent school psychologists

In the USA, public schools face a shortage of school psychologists, and an even greater shortage of bilingual school psychologists (Lopez, 2008). The distinct needs of CLD students present new demands for service delivery in today’s schools (Wright Carroll, 2009). School psychologists must be prepared to address educational disparities that exist for these students (Huckleberry, 2009). Demographic trends in the field of school psychology have not kept up with the increasing diversity of the public school system. Nine out of 10 school psychologists in the USA identified as Caucasian in 2010, a figure that has not changed significantly over the last 30 years (Curtis, Castillo, & Gelley, 2012). Thus, despite the need to serve a diverse student population, the field of school psychology continues to reflect limited racial and ethnic diversity. It is necessary for school psychology programs to recruit and retain CLD students (Martines, 2008). Additionally, very few school psychology training programs in the USA offer bilingual specializations or focus on multiculturalism (‘Programs and Bilingualism’, n.d.). A lack of awareness of and knowledge about cultural issues can limit a school psychologist’s ability to effectively serve CLD students, including immigrants (Martines, 2008).

School psychology training programs must prepare future school psychologists to meet the needs of CLD students (Lopez & Rogers, 2007). To do this, the school psychology curriculum must infuse multicultural content into courses and provide field-based experiences with diverse populations (Rogers, 2005). Increasing the number of highly qualified bilingual school psychologists may improve teaching and learning by ensuring that language differences and assessment of the need for special education services are competently assessed for the purpose of appropriate educational interventions. Competent bilingual assessment by school psychologists proficient in Spanish may reduce the likelihood of over-identification and under-identification for special education, increase the recognition of special needs that may be masked by language differences, and promote collaboration among families and educators to maximize intervention effectiveness.

A survey by Jimmerson, Stewart, Skokut, Cardenas, and Malone (2009) examining school psychologists in various countries showed that the total number of school psychologists throughout 48 countries is over 76,000. They also found that for the 1.89 billion school-age children in the world, 379 million children reside in countries that lack access to a school psychologist. Thirteen of the 48 countries had school psychologist to student ratios of 1: 2,000, although Namibia had a ratio of 1: 34,712. Tanzania had the highest ratio, 1: 4,368,289, with only three reported school psychologists in the country. These large ratios have implications for the lack of much needed services for children globally.

Project SUPERB

Project SUPERB is an innovative grant-funded training model that provides a specialty track in bilingual school psychology. The purpose of Project SUPERB is to address the critical need for more and better-qualified bilingual (Spanish-English) school psychologists with a new training and certification track in bilingual school psychology at Texas State University, in the USA. Grant funding of $1.05 million from the US Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, (H325K Personnel Preparation Grant for Related Services) supports the recruitment, preparation, and financial support of scholars in specialized coursework, supervised bilingual field experiences, and language/cultural immersion experiences. Project SUPERB was initiated in the fall of 2014, with the grant funding awarded in September 2014; outcome data will be reported on an annual basis and at the conclusion of the five-year grant period.

Parallel to the broad training goals described above, Project SUPERB is designed to achieve several goals related to use of grant funds: Obtain the resources necessary to recruit and graduate 24 qualified scholars during the five-year grant period; place all 24 scholars in bilingual school psychology positions in PK-12 settings within one year of graduation; and support program scholars – financially and professionally – during coursework and the internship to graduation and licensure and through induction into the profession. During the first year of implementation, the number of bilingual applicants has increased. Accreditation from the International School Psychology Association (ISPA, 2014) is a realistic goal as the project becomes an established component of the Texas State University School Psychology Program.

Implementation of Project SUPERB began prior to grant funding with national recruitment and hiring of a bilingual tenure-track faculty member. The Project SUPERB website was launched, brochures were developed, and development began on specialized courses and activities. Upon notification of funding from the US Department of Education (DOE) after the start of the fall 2014 semester, bilingual graduate students already enrolled in the program were invited to apply for Project SUPERB as funded scholars. A cohort of six bilingual scholars, each of whom completed an oral Spanish-language proficiency evaluation, a written statement regarding goals for providing bilingual school psychology services, and an individual interview, was recruited from the existing student body, with two additional scholars selected from a competitive field of applicants for spring 2015 entry, for a total of eight scholars in the first cohort. A half-time grant coordinator was hired to maintain budgetary records, coordinate data collection and entry, and assist with recruitment, field placements, and reporting/evaluation requirements. Additionally, a part-time consultant was hired to assist with the design and implementation of the program evaluation component of Project SUPERB. Each Project SUPERB scholar receives an iPad, a stipend of $24,000 USD over the three-year full-time program to defray costs of education, and funding for membership in professional organizations, attendance at one or more professional conferences, and an immersion experience. The $24,000 stipend is distributed across the three-year program for each scholar (Year 1: $11,750; Year 2: $8,750; Year 3: $6,000), with the largest stipend in the first year to support expenses of relocation and purchase of educational materials. In the third year of graduate enrollment (internship year), the stipend amount is lower since most full-time interns receive a salary or a stipend. Instructional materials such as assessment kits appropriate for bilingual populations and books were purchased with grant funds to support courses for the bilingual track.

Each Project SUPERB scholar is required to complete the same core coursework as other school psychology graduate students. Although they comprise a distinct cohort, Project SUPERB scholars are also fully integrated with graduate student peers with respect to major benchmarks such as evaluations by faculty, an oral examination and portfolio, and culminating case studies completed during the internship year to demonstrate positive impact on children and schools. Additional activities for scholars in Project SUPERB include specific course content in the characteristics and needs of students with cultural/linguistic differences and English language learning students; methods of assessing oral and written language proficiency; the administration, scoring, and interpretation of standardized measures of cognitive abilities and academic achievement in Spanish and English; and knowledge of laws, regulations, and policies that pertain to the education of bilingual and English language learning students, including bilingual proficiency in the specialized vocabulary of education law and psychology (Cummings, 1994; Martines & Rodriquez-Srednicki, 2007). Course content for scholars includes a core course in multiculturalism, a more intensive course in the assessment of cultural and linguistically diverse students, a psycholinguistics course, and instruction from bilingual faculty in both Spanish and English. As described below, three field experience courses are required, each of which provides extensive opportunities to work with CLD populations using bilingual school psychology skills in assessment, school and family consultation, counseling, and systems issues.

Each scholar receives individual supervision from a bilingual field supervisor across three practicum experiences, two completed in public schools and one completed in an on-campus clinic setting. Scholars complete a full-time (1,200 hour) internship during their third and final year in the program, with university and field supervision provided by licensed and/or certified bilingual school psychologists in public school districts with high demand for bilingual school psychology services. Other activities include on-campus symposia, professional development, informal networking with other bilingual professionals in training, funded opportunities to present and publish research in professional venues, and as previously noted, an immersion experience. During this first year of funding, six of the eight current scholars attended the National Association of School psychology (NASP) convention, with three scholars participating in presentations on the Project SUPERB model. Further, project faculty participated in a national symposium on bilingual issues, a university symposium on graduate training for bilingual professionals (with Project SUPERB scholars), and several invited regional and state conference workshops related to the bilingual training model. Because Texas State University is a Hispanic Serving Institution in a majority Hispanic community, multiple opportunities exist for collaboration with and service to Spanish-speakers. Collaboration with other graduate training programs on the university campus, including the bilingual speech language pathology and bilingual teacher education programs, has been initiated. Training opportunities involving multidisciplinary bilingual team assessments in our university clinics and social and professional networking opportunities are planned components of the training model. Project SUPERB has also partnered with five regional public school districts with high need for bilingual school psychology services.

Scholars are required by federal law to complete two years of service for every year of funding, with two conditions specific to populations served and time commitment: (1) at least 51% of the infants, toddlers, and children to whom scholars provide services must be receiving special education, related services, or early intervention services; and, (2) scholars must spend at least 51% of their time providing special education, related services, or early intervention services to infants, toddlers, and children with disabilities.This service requirement begins upon graduation, and data regarding populations served, services provided, and outcomes, will be collected and reported for all scholars during their period of service.

Implications for international school psychology

As school psychology programs across the world strive to prepare culturally competent practitioners, they will invariably need to attend to challenges presented by local migration patterns. Although some elements of cultural competency training may be very general and theoretical, future practitioners will likely need specific knowledge and skills that may be applied to the populations that they will serve. It behooves training programs to consider migration patterns in their country or region and adapt the curriculum to incorporate information about the unique needs of children and adolescents who may immigrate to the area.

Preparation of future school psychologists who serve immigrants must go beyond linguistic concerns and consider cultural factors, psychosocial implications, and possible trauma related to immigration. For example, children who have fled their home country to escape violence are likely to have significant needs beyond learning a new language and culture (Lasser & Adams, 2007). The economic pressures of poverty and limited employment opportunities may also drive migration. Preparation and coursework for school psychologists should include content around the unique educational, social, and emotional needs of immigrant children and adolescents (Dettlaff et al., 2009). Moreover, future school psychologists will need to develop the knowledge and skills necessary for collaboration across systems, as immigrant children and families often can benefit from coordinated services across schools and communities.

Toward these ends, international school psychology programs may enhance their capacities by recruiting and retaining faculty who incorporate immigration issues in their teaching, research, and service. The internationalization of school psychology has great potential for growth and enhancement of training opportunities. These aspirations may also be advanced via visiting scholars, Fulbright grants (http://eca.state.gov/fulbright) for international educational exchange, and faculty-led student learning programs abroad. As an example, the Ecuador Professional Preparation Program (http://www.ecuadorppp.com), founded by school psychologists, offers a cultural and language immersion program for mental health professionals. Additionally, the Sage Handbook of International Higher Education (Deardorff, de Wit, Heyl, & Adams, 2012) may prove valuable to programs that are trying to develop a rationale for moving resources in support of international program development.

A final recommendation to enhance the cultural competencies of future school psychologists in the context of immigration is for graduate training programs to work with ISPA to organize information gathering and exchange around this critical training concern. This collaboration may take the form of a task force, conference symposium, and/or webinars. Ideally, such collaboration would include school psychologists representative of several countries and cultures. Project SUPERB faculty and staff have begun to explore training standards for the ISPA Accreditation of Professional Training Programs in School Psychology for the Texas State School Psychology Program (ISPA, 2014).

Discussion

Migrant youth and their families face considerable challenges to positive mental health functioning and academic success. Thus, considering global migration patterns, the need for culturally competent school psychologists is greater than ever (Elizalde-Utnick & Guerrero, 2014). In this article, the authors presented as an example, Project SUPERB, a program developed to provide high-quality training to future bilingual school psychologists to meet the needs of the growing Spanish-speaking population in Texas. Increasing not only the quantity, which varies considerably across countries (Jimmerson et al., 2009), but also the quality of school psychologists globally is necessary. School psychologists must understand the unique needs of a new generation of youth with racial, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic differences, multiple learning styles, and diverse life experiences (Wright Carroll, 2009).

Cultural competence encompasses a continual process of growth in three domains: awareness, knowledge, and skills (Sue, 1998). Culturally competent school psychologists are aware of their culture, values, and biases; they recognize how these can impact the provision of services. They are knowledgeable of the historical treatment of racial and ethnic groups and understand the need to consider this factor in how they provide services and interact with diverse students and their families. Finally, in the skills domain, culturally competent school psychologists utilize culturally sensitive and relevant service delivery strategies in the areas of assessment, consultation, counseling, and intervention.

Positive mental health functioning is essential to the learning and development of children (Klotz, 2007). Appropriate preventative and intervention services increase the likelihood of academic success and positive social-emotional well-being. Culturally competent school psychologists respect the race, ethnicity, social class, religion, and sexual orientation of children and their families, they are aware of their assumptions and biases, and they utilize the cultural assets of families when developing and identifying prevention and intervention programs (Klotz, 2007). Schools must foster a sense of community that is inclusive of the cultural values and expectations of diverse groups, which helps promote trust and respect of family members (Jones, 2010). When linguistic barriers are present, schools should hire and/or identify liaisons to improve outreach to families to increase their involvement and communication. Building relationships with families can help increase access to mental health services, especially when provided at no cost in the schools. School psychologists are trained to provide social skills interventions, individual and/or group counseling, consultation, and collaboration with community mental health providers to help families access necessary services.

To ensure appropriate academic support for migrant youth and to address disproportionality in special education, culturally responsive education practices are essential. Sullivan et al. (2009) state,

Consideration of diverse needs and perspectives should be inherent in all graduate training and professional learning opportunities. Furthermore, school psychologists should seek out training, supervision, and consultation opportunities that develop cultural responsiveness and increase their effectiveness for work with diverse populations. (p. 1)

This endeavor requires preparation to address issues of race, culture, and racism, and to challenge cultural deficit perspectives that blame children for academic failure without examining the educational context (Sullivan et al., 2009). Further, school psychologists should become familiar with special education data to examine potential disproportionality in their region. This helps in identifying and implementing practices and policies to prevent particular groups from being over- or under-represented in special education. School psychologists must also be competent in selecting appropriate assessment tools by considering the influences of a child’s cultural and linguistic background and life experiences.

Conclusion

Migration to a new country can bring about multiple challenges and stressors that if left unaddressed, can impact the mental health and academic performance of migrant youth. Culturally competent school psychologists are needed to address the diverse needs of these students. School psychologists across the globe must have an understanding of the policies that affect migrant youth and their families and be equipped with the skills to effectively serve this population. They must be prepared to address pre-existing mental health issues and the distress that may occur post-migration. Project SUPERB serves as an example of a training model that provides a specialization in bilingual school psychology. Although Project SUPERB currently receives grant funding to support recruitment and training of bilingual scholars, the program was conceptualized and initiated prior to funding, with support from the university, department, and School Psychology program. Grant funding has made the recruitment of Spanish-proficient scholars and the acquisition of educational materials easier; however, the intent is to continue to deliver the bilingual training program, which seems to be a realistic goal even without grant funding.

Other school psychology training programs can develop similar specialization to train their graduate students to meet the unique needs of the migrant populations in their respective regions. Commitment to (1) recruiting and retaining faculty with expertise in multiculturalism and migrant youth; (2) developing relationships with field sites and supervisors who can provide appropriate experiences; and (3) supporting students with relevant instruction, supervision, and professional opportunities, will be necessary to develop this specialization. With appropriate preparation and training, future school psychologists can have a positive impact on the academic trajectory and mental health functioning of migrant youth.

Footnotes

Recommended Resources

1. UNICEF and migration: See

2. United Nations and Children: See

3. Educational Services for Immigrant Children (United States of America): See

4. The Young Center for Immigrant Children’s Rights: See

5. Human Rights Watch: See

6. Project SUPERB (Texas, United States of America): See

7. Migration Policy Institute: See

Note

Author biographies

Desireé Vega, PhD, is an Assistant Professor in the School Psychology specialist program at Texas State University. She earned her doctorate in School Psychology from The Ohio State University. Dr Vega teaches courses in consultation, alternative assessment, and multicultural issues in school psychology. Her research interests include the preparation of culturally competent and bilingual school psychologists, the assessment of culturally and linguistically diverse students, and multicultural issues in education.

Jon Lasser, PhD, is a Professor and Program Director of the School Psychology specialist program at Texas State University, where he has developed and taught graduate level courses for the school psychology program. He co-authored The School Psychologist as Counselor: A Practitioner’s Handbook (NASP, 2013) and has published journal articles and chapters on a variety of subjects including ethics, sexuality, and graduate preparation. His interest in research and ethics intersect in his role as the chair of the Institutional Review Board at Texas State. Dr Lasser holds a doctorate in School Psychology from the University of Texas at Austin.

Cynthia Plotts, PhD, is a Licensed Psychologist and Neuropsychologist with a doctorate in school psychology from the University of Texas at Austin. She is a Professor of School Psychology at Texas State University, where she teaches courses in counseling techniques, assessment, and biological bases of behavior. Dr Plotts’ research interests include traumatic brain injury, neurodevelopmental disorders, substance abuse, and emotional/behavioral disturbance. Her counseling and psychotherapy experience includes school-based counseling and crisis intervention and private practice psychotherapy with children, teens, and adults. She co-wrote The School Psychologist as Counselor: A Practitioner’s Handbook (NASP, 2013).

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