Immigrant mothers as advocates: Understanding how Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities navigate special education in the USA

Abstract

Despite a myriad of linguistic and cultural barriers, immigrant parents of children with disabilities in the United States have adopted a variety of advocacy strategies. Drawing upon the frameworks of Community Cultural Wealth and Ecological Systems Theory, this study explores how Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities advocate for their children within the special education system in the United States. Seven Korean immigrant mothers participated in semi-structured focus group interviews. The findings reveal that these mothers use various strategies, such as seeking resources, attending training, and engaging with support networks within the Korean immigrant community. They also proactively acquired knowledge of special education policies and sought assistance from legal advocacy groups. However, they face challenges in accessing information due to linguistic barriers and a lack of clear descriptions of their children's rights and available services. They also identified that their intersecting racial, ethnic, cultural, and gender identities contribute to their experiences of discrimination and disadvantage. The study underscores the importance of providing tailored information, enhancing community support, and addressing systemic barriers to empower immigrant mothers within the special education system. Implications for schools, school psychologists, and families are discussed, along with recommendations for future research.

Keywords

Korean immigrant mothers special education students with disabilities community cultural wealth ecological systems theory

In 2021, approximately 1 in 6 children in the United States of America (USA) were served under the Individuals with Disabilities in Education Act (IDEA; National Center for Education Statistics, 2022). While the experiences of parents of children with and without disabilities are similar in many ways, there are distinct challenges that can put parents of children with disabilities at an increased risk for psychosocial distress (Resch et al., 2010). For immigrant parents, including Korean immigrant mothers, these challenges can be overwhelming. Language and cultural barriers, unfamiliarity with the system, and discrimination when working with professionals are just a few examples of the obstacles they may encounter (Cho et al., 2000, 2003; Lee et al., 2022; Park et al., 2001). These barriers can limit parents’ access to information, resources, and support, and can make it difficult for them to be their children's advocates (Cho et al., 2000, 2003; Lee et al., 2022; Park et al., 2001).

While recognizing the importance of acknowledging the challenges faced by immigrant mothers of children with disabilities, it is equally crucial to challenge prevailing misconceptions and stereotypes (Burke & Goldman, 2018; Lasky & Karge, 2011). Thus, it is imperative to gain a comprehensive understanding of the strategies, initiatives, and practices that immigrant mothers utilize to facilitate their children's success. Further, exploration in this area can expand practitioners’ and researchers’ knowledge and enable them to provide culturally relevant and effective support and services to immigrant children with disabilities and their mothers. Thus, in this study, we examine the strategies utilized by Korean immigrant mothers to advocate for their children within the special education system, understand the challenges they face, and identify the support they need.

Navigational capital and ecological system theory

We examined how Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities in the USA use navigational capital, which is one of the six types of community cultural wealth (CCW) (Yosso, 2005). Navigational capital consists of the specific forms of knowledge, skills, and abilities that individuals from marginalized communities utilize to navigate and negotiate educational, legal, and financial systems. Rooted in critical race theory, CCW calls attention to often unnoticed and ignored forms of capital that marginalized populations possess (Kwon et al., 2023). For immigrant mothers of children with disabilities, possessing and developing navigational capital is important as they encounter numerous challenges and barriers in the special education system.

We also utilized ecological systems theory (EST; Bronfenbrenner, 1992) as a theoretical lens. EST posits that multiple levels of the social environment interact and influence human development over time. This study places Korean immigrant mothers at the center of their social environment. The microsystem is the most proximal social environment of the individual and includes everyone with whom they interact, such as family (husband and children) and peers (other Korean immigrant mothers). In contrast, the mesosystem is the connection or communication channel between microsystems such as interactions between different peer groups or community support. The exosystem encompasses the social and contextual factors that affect the individual's microsystem but with whom the individual does not directly interact, such as school personnel supporting their children. The exosystem may include assessment policies and qualification for services, which vary across states, districts, and schools (Cottrell & Barrett, 2016; Maki et al., 2015). The macrosystem involves broader societal factors such as special education laws and approaches to serving students with disabilities that are shaped by American culture and may differ from the those in immigrants’ home countries (Rix et al., 2013). The final layer, the chronosystem, acknowledges that these ecological systems and their influences on developmental outcomes change over time, as special education laws have evolved the past 20 years (IDEA, 2004; Yell & Bateman, 2017).

Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities

In the USA, Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities encounter unique challenges. Language and cultural barriers can make it especially difficult to access special education services (Cho et al., 2000, 2003; Jegatheesan, 2009; Kim et al., 2021; Park et al., 2001). Mothers may not understand the English terminology or procedures involved. They may also struggle to find and work with educators, therapists, psychologists, medical providers, and lawyers (Cho et al., 2000, 2003; Lee & Park, 2016; Park et al., 2001). Moreover, they frequently face stigma and discrimination associated with their children's disabilities, race, and ethnicity (Cho & Gannotti, 2005; Lee et al., 2022; Park et al., 2001). Many Korean immigrant mothers may hesitate to confront school personnel when their children have not received appropriate educational services (Cho & Gannotti, 2005; Jegatheesan, 2009; Park et al., 2001). This reluctance can be attributed to their intersecting identities as both immigrants and women, and the fear of reprisals for their children (Cho & Gannotti, 2005; Jegatheesan, 2009; Kim & Kim, 2017; Park et al., 2001).

However, Korean immigrant mothers in the USA have demonstrated remarkable resilience and resourcefulness by finding ways to navigate the complex educational system and protect the rights of their children (Kim & Kim, 2017; Kim et al., 2007). Kim and Kim (2017) reported that these mothers embrace their role as advocates and researchers beyond their traditional parental responsibilities. For example, some parents enhance their understanding of disability-related services and their rights through formal programs provided by professional organizations (Cho & Gannotti, 2005; Kim et al., 2007; Lee & Park, 2016). Others have connected with the Korean community to access information about available services, such as attending support groups or obtaining information from a Korean nonprofit for people with disabilities (Cho & Gannotti, 2005; Kim et al., 2007; Kwon et al., 2023). In some cases, mothers have taken legal action, such as refusing to sign special education documents due to unsatisfactory plans and progress, hiring an advocate, or requesting a due-process hearing (Cho & Gannotti, 2005).

The deficit view of mothers of children with disabilities often depicts them as trapped by numerous challenges and with limited agency to advocate for their children (Burke & Goldman, 2018; Lasky & Karge, 2011). However, to provide effective and culturally relevant support, it is important to adopt a strength-based approach and recognize the different methods, approaches, and actions that immigrant mothers employ to promote their children's educational achievement and wellbeing (Kim & Kim, 2017).

The present study

This study examines how Korean immigrant mothers in the USA navigate the special education system and advocate for their children by asking the following research questions: (1) In what ways do Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities in the USA draw on their navigational capital to advocate for their children's needs within the special education system? and (2) What support do the mothers need to navigate the special education system in the USA? By drawing on CCW and EST, we highlight the strategies and navigational capital Korean immigrant mothers use across systems to advocate for their children with disabilities. Through this study, we arrive at a fine-grained understanding of immigrant mothers’ experiences, contribute to the development of more effective and culturally responsive services for children with disabilities and their families, and promote more inclusive and equitable practices.

Method

Participants

We adopted purposive sampling (Palinkas et al., 2015) by posting a flyer on a transnational website where the Korean immigrant mothers share their experiences with and information about special education in the USA (Kwon et al., 2023). Inclusion criteria were Korean immigrant mothers currently residing in the USA whose child/children were currently participating in or had participated in the special education process in the past two years.

Seven Korean immigrant mothers residing in California, New York, and Nebraska, met the inclusion criteria and agreed to participate in this study (Table 1). All mothers had lived in the USA for more than 10 years and used Korean as their primary language at home. Their children had different and sometimes multiple disabilities, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD), speech or language impairment, and orthopedic impairment. By including participants from different backgrounds, we captured a range of experiences and perspectives within this population.

Table 1.

Participant information.

Pseudonym	Age	Education	Occupation	Location	Total children	Child's grade	Child gender	IEP category(ies)
Eunsung	41–45 years	Bachelor's Degree	Employed part-time	California	2	3rd	Male	Autism spectrum disorder
Julia	41–45 years	Bachelor's Degree	Stay-at-home mother	Alabama	2	6th	Male	Autism spectrum disorder, speech or language impairment
Katie	50 + years	Master's Degree	Stay-at-home mother	New York	3	5th	Female	Orthopedic impairment
Hannah	46–50 years	Master's Degree	Stay-at-home mother	California	3	12th	Male	Multiple disabilities
Ivy	41–45 years	Doctoral Degree	Employed part-time	Nebraska	2	1st	Male	Autism spectrum disorder
Cassie	41–45 years	Bachelor's Degree	Other	California	2	2nd	Male	Autism spectrum disorder
Jane	46–50 years	Bachelor's Degree	Did not respond	New York	2	4th	Male	Autism spectrum disorder

Data collection

This study is part of a larger community-based participatory research project aimed at enhancing support for Korean immigrant mothers in navigating the special education system. This article draws on data collected from focus group interviews and demographic questionnaires completed by seven Korean immigrant mothers. Focus group methodology is “an informal discussion among selected individuals about specific topics” (Beck et al., 1986, p. 73) that has value for centering those who are marginalized, empowering participants, and fostering social change (Johnson, 1996). The focus group interview relied on semi-structured questions, guided by the principles of Focus Group Discussion (Vaughn et al., 1996). The interview questions were developed through a meticulous literature review, expert input, and alignment with the research objectives. The questions centered on the participants’ experiences within the special education system and perspectives on the required resources. All meetings were video-recorded and transcribed. To help our participants fully articulate their experiences and concerns, the interviews were conducted in Korean, the language that the participants were most comfortable using.

Data analysis

The interview recordings were transcribed, translated, and uploaded to MAQDA, a qualitative data analysis software. Two bilingual scholars fluent in Korean and English conducted the translation, with one translating the transcripts and the other cross-validating them for accuracy and consistency. To explore the lived experiences and perspectives of Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities within the special education system, we employed thematic analysis (Creswell, 2014). We first familiarized ourselves with the interview data by reading and rereading the transcripts, making memos about the participants, and documenting our initial reactions to capture our immediate reflections and insights. The biographical information gathered from the questionnaires helped us understand the participants’ backgrounds and experiences in navigating the special education system. Initial coding was conducted by taking both inductive and deductive approaches. Codes were assigned to capture our observations about the data (e.g., navigating the special education system through advocacy, knowing the child's rights, unfair treatment) were generated from the conceptual framework, existing literature, and research questions (e.g., microsystem, navigational capital). Researchers collaboratively reviewed the coding, grouped the codes, and identified major themes. Any disagreements were resolved through discussions and iterative review of the data until consensus was reached. For example, codes that described the challenges that the mothers faced in navigating the special education system (e.g., limited English, unfair treatment, being immigrants) were combined with codes that illustrated the specific needs that the mothers shared based on their unique identities (e.g., knowing the child's rights, diversity represented in the decision-making board) to highlight the multi-layered challenges that the mothers experience due to their intersectional identities. Member checking was conducted through reflexive discussions, challenging assumptions, and interpretations, and critically examining emerging themes to refine and validate our findings.

Researcher positionality and reflexivity

Our research team consists of female Asian scholars in the USA with expertise in education and psychology; all of them work closely with Asian immigrant children and their families. We recognized the potential impact of our backgrounds and experiences on the study and engaged in reflexive practices to acknowledge our own biases and subjectivities. We brought diverse perspectives to the present study, as each of us had personal experiences of raising children in the USA, working with children with disabilities, and navigating the challenges facing immigrants. Embracing our positionality as researchers and practicing reflexivity, we conducted the study with sensitivity, integrity, and a commitment to authentic representation, leading to a nuanced understanding of Korean immigrant mothers’ experiences with children with disabilities.

Ethical consideration

Ethical considerations were addressed by obtaining informed consent from all participants, ensuring participant anonymity and confidentiality, and minimizing potential risks and discomfort. This study received approval from the Institutional Review Board at Michigan State University (#STUDY00008501) and adhered to all relevant ethical standards and guidelines. Participants were given clear explanations of the study's purpose, procedures, and potential benefits and risks. No identifiable information was collected, and all demographic data were strictly kept confidential. The recording was deleted after transcribing and data were securely stored, accessible solely by the research team.

Results

Enacting advocacy through the utilization of navigational capital

Results suggested that the Korean immigrant mothers in our study drew on navigational capital to navigate the special education system and advocate for their children through multiple systems. The mothers described tireless efforts to obtain services for their children by expanding their knowledge of special education policies and procedures. These practices included attending classes, reading, and studying material on special education, and resolving problems on their own. Hannah, whose child has a developmental and physical delay, recounted attending many regional trainings and reading books. She was motivated to do as much as possible for her child:

Looking back, I believe that parents can advocate for their child as much as they know. The more parents seek resources, the more services their child can receive. It is important for parents to gain information and training so that they can better advocate for their child and prevent any disadvantage.

Ivy, who has a child with ASD, emphasized that mothers should arm themselves with information about special education so that they can tell doctors and practitioners exactly which tests, evaluations, assessments, and programs they want for their child.

In addition to their individual efforts, the mothers sought and received support across multilevel ecological systems. For instance, many of them turned to the Korean immigrant community, one of their microsystems. Mothers living in states with a larger population of Korean immigrants such as California, reported having access to abundant support from their community, such as opportunities to meet with special education specialists and professors with Korean heritage. In contrast, those living in regions with smaller Korean populations shared that they had less access to support from their ethnic community. This finding corroborates previous studies that have indicated varying access to resources depending on geographical location, as well as the importance of parents to connect with their ethnic community when navigating the special education system (Kim et al., 2007; Kwon et al., 2023).

Mothers navigated the exosystem and macrosystem by engaging in various strategies to access external resources and overcome systemic barriers. The mothers took the initiative to find information about the federal and state laws that affect special education services to understand their children's rights and attended workshops or training sessions offered by legal advocacy groups. A few mothers also reported consulting legal advocacy groups to understand their options, receive guidance on advocacy strategies, and ensure their rights and the rights of their children were protected within the education system. They emphasized the importance of seeking help from legal advocacy groups, but also with challenges finding such groups. As Julia stated:

I think that legal services are crucial for racial and ethnic minority groups. It was difficult to find a lawyer, and handling everything by myself felt overwhelming. I even sent an email and a formal complaint to the Department of Education. Without getting legal support, Asian parents like us continue the struggle.

Julia even had to relocate to another state several times to find better legal support for her child with ASD and speech and language impairment. She utilized navigational capital, transcending geographical boundaries to secure the support and resources that were essential for her child's educational success.

Challenges and needed support navigating the special education system

Despite numerous efforts to navigate the special education system and advocate for their children, Korean immigrant mothers encountered several challenges. The two primary challenges, along with the types of support they needed, are described below.

One size does not fit all: challenges in finding information

The mothers emphasized the difficulty of obtaining useful information for their child. The specialized terminology (e.g., “manifest determination,” “code of conduct”) and procedures (e.g., due process) were difficult to comprehend, especially with the lack of translated materials. This finding corroborates previous studies on Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities, highlighting their frustration in comprehending technical information because of their limited proficiency in English (You & Rosenkoetter, 2014). Jane, whose child with ASD was in fourth grade, stressed the importance of access to Korean translators and information, saying, “Our school district didn’t have an interpreter, so I had to navigate on my own without an interpreter from the time my child was in kindergarten to the fourth grade.” She explained that in her last meeting she was given information packages in Korean. She added, “Reading it in Korean was so much different from reading it in English. It was so much clearer, and I could picture my child.”

The mothers also noted that the information given to them tended to be too generic and did not clearly explain how it could affect the day-to-day life of their children. Ivy, who lives in Nebraska and is the mother of a child with ASD, argued that the limited information available to her prevented her from learning as much as possible about the various kinds of support available to her child. She emphasized the need to have access to information on special education resources that clearly explained the types of services that schools could offer children with hearing or visual needs as well as the extent to which schools could offer physical therapy and occupational therapy. She said:

[I want to know about] rights. My child's rights. What rights does my child have? I think it also varies by state. Even in the same state, it differs by school district. I am not sure what the maximum and minimum rights are.

Cassie, who lives in California and whose child has ASD, stressed that more detailed information about the services their child was eligible for would be helpful. In fact, she pointed out that she had a right to that information. “The purpose of special education is that our child also has equal rights to receive education. […] If we knew the terminology, we could be better prepared. But there is just a lot of information.”

During the focus group interviews, the mothers described the types of resources and information they needed, and they offered suggestions on how they could push back against the one-size-fits-all model of information sharing. First, the mothers emphasized the need for individualized, detailed information on how to parent a child with disabilities. For mothers like Katie and Eunsung, this meant receiving an individualized plan that outlines different options as their child progresses from kindergarten through high school, including which school to attend, whether to retain their child, and whether to enroll their child in private or public school.

The mothers also expressed the need for a space and community in which they can come together and share information, despite being geographically dispersed and having children of different ages. Hannah observed that the focus group interview reminded her of the need for such a space:

Seeing these mothers [participating in the focus group interview] has made me realize that there are things that I was not aware of and the things I have experienced and wish to share with others. Regional centers offer a range of services that many mothers are unaware of, and it would be beneficial to share information about the various benefits available from these centers, as well as services offered by the state or government.

Although the mothers had different needs, they all recognized the importance of receiving more individualized and detailed information in Korean to better understand the special education system in the USA.

Challenges compounded with intersectional identities

The mothers faced multilayered challenges that were compounded by their intersectional identities. They highlighted how their status as racial and ethnic minorities, as well as first-generation immigrants from Korea with limited proficiency in English, affected their ability to navigate the special education system. Ivy reflected on her experience as a newly arrived Korean immigrant:

There was a lot that I didn’t know about, such as the USA special education system and how much insurance could cover. As I navigated this new system, I had no idea where I was headed. There was no one to guide me or teach me how to navigate it, which put me in difficult situations.

Mothers, including Ivy, shared how they have felt, what they have observed, and how they encountered unfair treatment by schools, teachers, and lawyers, which they attributed to being Asian, foreign-born, and/or having limited proficiency in English.

As stated earlier, mothers shared that they needed more detailed training geared toward parents like them. Julia relocated several times to obtain better services for her children, stating that immigrants like her needed more comprehensive training in parenting children with disabilities. The mothers demanded change in the exosystem and macrosystem, particularly for racially and ethnically diverse families of children with disabilities. Julia stressed the importance of having diverse members on decision-making boards such as local boards of education and among policymakers, claiming that such change would create a more equitable special education system for all families, including Korean immigrant parents with children with disabilities.

Discussion

The results of this study provide insights into the experiences and strategies employed by Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities as they navigated the complex terrain of the special education system and advocated for their children. Our study demonstrated Korean immigrant mothers’ utilization of navigational capital (Yosso, 2005) by presenting numerous instances in which Korean immigrant mothers used their knowledge, skills, and abilities to navigate the special education system. Many forms of navigational capital were consistent with prior research. For example, several mothers mentioned attending classes, reading books, asking questions, and relying on advocates (Cho & Gannotti, 2005; Kim et al., 2007; Kwon et al., 2023; Lee & Park, 2016). However, this study revealed new ways of employing navigational capital. For example, mothers realized that not only do special education processes vary by state, district, and school, but so do the resources available to them, often in relation to the size of a location's Korean population. As such, one mother reported moving across state lines to obtain the most resources for her child and family.

By adopting an EST lens, this study revealed how the mothers leveraged multiple ecological systems to support their children's education. For instance, one mother reported how she sought help from peers in her microsystem to learn about the special education system and that this help-seeking behavior was positively linked to the nature of services her child receives. This is consistent with previous research which has found a link between parental beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors and the opportunities and outcomes for their children with disabilities (Arakelyan et al., 2019). The mothers also reported the need for transformative shifts within the broader exosystem and macrosystem, which would influence their experiences. For example, one mother recommended diversifying and advocating for more representation in school and local boards and policy groups to create more equitable and inclusive structures.

One of the key contributions of this study lies in its transformative and instrumental reframing of the narrative of Korean immigrant mothers. By adopting a strengths-based approach and focusing on the strategies and practices these mothers used, this study highlights their advocacy. The findings of the study shift the perception of Korean immigrant mothers from passive recipients struggling with the special education system (Burke & Goldman, 2018; Lasky & Karge, 2011) to active agents negotiating the system. The focus group interviews indicated that despite the challenges, the mothers demonstrated the same resilience and resourcefulness reported in previous studies (Kim & Kim, 2017; Kim et al., 2007). For instance, some mothers reported reading books or consulting training resources, while others turned to the Korean community for advice and support. Furthermore, some mothers in this study extended their role beyond educating themselves about the special education process (Kim & Kim, 2017) and sought assistance from lawyers and legal advocacy groups.

Implications for parents, caregivers, and families

As a community-engaged research study, the results have significant implications for the participants of this study and the larger community of Korean immigrant families. This study revealed that it is vital for immigrant parents, caregivers, and families to learn and be knowledgeable about the special education system through books, training, and community resources. Many mothers in this study reported how they accessed support and information by connecting with the local Korean immigrant community and online. It is also important to note that they expressed a strong need for such community spaces. Lastly, the mothers in this study reported using a variety of methods and strategies which were part of their navigational capital. For instance, one mother in the study reported using resources from regional centers. However, not all mothers are familiar with these strategies. Hence, we argue that practitioners and researchers should actively create opportunities for immigrant parents of children with disabilities to connect, share their knowledge, and seek advice from each other. It is also important to gather information about different websites and organizations that could be helpful to these families and share the resources with them.

Implications for schools and educational policy

The results from this study have significant implications for schools, the delivery of culturally responsive special education services, and educational policy; they also highlight the potential for school psychologists to advocate for marginalized communities and promote broader structural change. All the mothers offered specific recommendations for the ways in which schools can work more productively with marginalized communities. First, schools should prioritize the translation of written materials into families’ native and/or preferred languages and have bilingual interpreters present in collaborative meetings. For example, participants in this study noted that having access to special education resources and information in Korean significantly improved their understanding of the special education system and empowered them.

Second, schools should provide individualized, well-operationalized, and detailed support and services for families. Participants emphasized that broad or vague recommendations, devoid of culturally relevant and clear guidance, were seldom effective in supporting their child's learning in the special education system. Schools should allocate resources, time, and personnel to explain individualized scenarios and drill down into specific details to make them meaningful for families. Schools should also reflect on how to make implicit processes or policies explicit to account for the prior knowledge that school staff might assume families have. School psychologists, with their deep understanding of the special education system, can play a vital role in this endeavor. They can provide personalized consultations to families, guiding them through complex procedures, advocating for their needs, and facilitating effective communication between families and teachers.

Finally, educators should reflect on their own internal biases, judgments, or assumptions. Many of the mothers recounted experiences of racism, misogyny, and discrimination, underscoring the unfair treatment they experienced as women of color, non-native English speakers, and immigrants. Not only do policies need to be established or improved upon to ensure families from diverse backgrounds receive equitable and fair treatment in the special education system, they must also be reinforced; for example, several parental rights established through federal law in the USA, such as joint decision making during special education qualification and services (IDEA, 2004), must be reinforced to ensure that parents from diverse backgrounds have the same voice and experience in schools as other parents from White, English speaking backgrounds. These types of policies establish more accessible avenues for parents, enabling them to effectively evaluate special education services with comprehensive knowledge of available resources, and without concerns about potential negative consequences for their children. Guided by the National Association of School Psychologists Practice Model (NASP, 2020) and its commitment to equity and inclusivity, school psychologists should take the lead in efforts to reduce bias and create a more culturally responsive environment for students. For instance, they can facilitate learning opportunities for teachers and school staff to enhance their cultural responsiveness and promote inclusivity within the school environment.

Limitations and future direction

Despite the merits of our study, several limitations of the research should be acknowledged to guide future research. Although qualitative methods need not rely on large sample sizes or generalizability to gain a rich description of a phenomenon, the mothers in this study may have represented a limited range of experiences. Future research could replicate and expand on this study by involving a larger number of immigrant mothers from other backgrounds, from other states, and with children who have other types of disabilities. Furthermore, although the scope of the study was exploratory, focusing on understanding the lived experiences of Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities, our study did not evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies employed in yielding positive outcomes for the children and their families. Future research could examine the extent to which the training and resources sought empowered mothers to advocate for their children or the services received led to better academic, social-emotional, and behavioral outcomes for their children.

Conclusion

This study built upon a limited body of literature and explored the lived experiences of Korean immigrant mothers of children with disabilities and their utilization of navigational capital. The study exemplified a strengths-based and community-engaged approach by conducting focus groups in Korean, the mother's preferred or native language. This built trust between the researchers and mothers and facilitated a nuanced understanding of the mothers’ experiences. The results aligned with prior research that emphasizes the knowledge, skills, and ability of Korean mothers to support their children with disabilities while also demonstrating the support and changes that need to be made for immigrant mothers in the USA who are navigating the special education system. The study serves as a valuable starting point for the research community, laying a foundation for the development of interventions and support systems tailored to parents of children with disabilities from marginalized communities.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was supported in part by the Dr. Delia Koo Global Faculty Endowment from the Asian Studies Center at Michigan State University.

ORCID iDs

Danbi Choe

Courtenay A. Barrett

Research ethics and participant consent

This study was performed in line with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of Michigan State University (#STUDY00008501).

Author Biographies

Danbi Choe is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Psychology at Louisiana State University, USA. Her research focuses on exploring protective and risk factors impacting the mental health of Asian immigrant children and developing culturally responsive specifically tailored to their unique needs.

Courtenay A. Barrett is an Assistant Professor in the School Psychology program at Michigan State University, USA. Her research examines the research-practice gap and data-based decision making, particularly in the context of special education qualification.

Jungmin Kwon is an Assistant Professor of language and literacy in the Department of Teacher Education at Michigan State University, USA. Her research centers on immigrant children and families, transnational migration, bi/multilingualism, and teacher preparation for linguistically and culturally diverse students.

Lamia Bagasrawala is a Doctoral Student in the School Psychology program at Michigan State University, USA. Her research interests include decolonial approaches and critical theories applied to school psychology research and practice, and international school psychology.

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