We examine the association of a novel form of insecurity (occupation insecurity) with three societal attitudes: the belief in conspiracy views, political powerlessness and relative deprivation. This answers the call in the literature to extend studies on work-related insecurity by broadening its conceptualization and extending its associations with a broader set of outcomes. Next, we explore whether the association between occupation insecurity and conspiracy views is mediated by both societal attitudes: political powerlessness and relative deprivation. The study took place during the Covid crisis in 2020. Consequently, all variables were framed in the context of this crisis. Cross-sectional data gathered via an online survey among 1324 employed wage and salary earners in Flanders (Belgium) are used to test the hypotheses. The data were analysed using the PROCESS macro, testing for parallel mediation. All direct effect hypotheses were corroborated by the analyses. The indirect effect of occupation insecurity on conspiracy views was only significant for political powerlessness, and not for relative deprivation, suggesting political powerlessness to be a more important explanatory variable than relative deprivation. The findings suggest occupation insecurity to have important societal and political correlates. Some suggestions to reduce the negative outcomes of occupation insecurity are discussed.
Abalakina-paapMStephanWGCraigTGregoryWL (1999) Beliefs in conspiracies. Political Psychology20(3): 637–647.
2.
Ardèvol-AbreuAGildeZúñigaHGámezE (2020) The influence of conspiracy beliefs on conventional and unconventional forms of political participation: The mediating role of political efficacy. British Journal of Sociology59: 549–569. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12366
3.
BendixRLipsetSM (1974) Class, Status, and Power: Social Stratification in Comparative Perspective. Routledge and Kegan Paul
4.
Bernard-OettelCDe CuyperN, et al. (2011) Linking job insecurity to well-being and organizational attitudes in Belgian workers: The role of security expectations and fairness. The International Journal of Human Resource Management22(9): 1866–1886.
5.
BertinPIonescuOGreenR, et al. (2024) Conspiracy blaming in the aftermath of group relative deprivation: The moderating role of national narcissism. European Journal of Social Psychology54: 1393–1415. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.3093
6.
BillietJDe WitteH (1995) Attitudinal dispositions to vote for a ‘new’ extreme right-wing party: The case of ‘Vlaams Blok’. European Journal of Political Research27(2): 181–202.
7.
BillietJDe WitteH (2008) Everyday racism as predictor of political racism in Flemish Belgium. Journal of Social Issues64(2): 253–267.
8.
BillietJMeulemanBDe WitteH (2014) The relationship between ethnic threat and economic insecurity in times of economic crisis: Analysis of European Social Survey data. Migration Studies2(2): 135–161. https://doi.org/10.1093/migration/mnu023
BruderMHaffkePNeaveN, et al. (2013) Measuring individual differences in generic beliefs in conspiracy theories across cultures: Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire. Frontiers in Psychology4. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00225
11.
ChengGHLChanDKS (2008) Who suffers more from job insecurity? A meta-analytic review. Applied Psychology: An International Review57(2): 272–303.
De CuyperNDe WitteH (2006) The impact of job insecurity and contract type on attitudes, well-being and behavioural reports: A psychological contract perspective. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology79: 395–409.
DeciELRyanRM (2000) The ‘what’ and ‘why’ of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry11(4): 227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
16.
De WeerdtYDe WitteH (2004) Sociaal-economische attitudes van werknemers in Vlaanderen. De rol van collectieve relatieve deprivatie [Socio-economic attitudes of workers in Flanders. The role of collective relative deprivation]. Tijdschrift voor Arbeidsvraagstukken20( 4): 350–366.
17.
De WitteH (2005a) Job insecurity: Review of the international literature on definitions, prevalence, antecedents and consequences. SA Journal of Industrial Psychology31(4): 1–6.
18.
De WitteH (ed.) (2005b) Job Insecurity, Union Involvement and Union Activism. Ashgate.
19.
De WitteH (2024) Job insecurity. In: MatthijsB (ed.) Encyclopedia of Organizational Psychology. Edward Elgar, pp. 342–347. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781803921761
20.
De WitteHMeulemanB (2007) Job insecurity and voting for an extreme right-wing party. In: LoosveldtGSwyngedouwMCambréB (eds) Measuring Meaningful Data in Social Research. Acco, pp. 93–111.
21.
De WitteHPienaarJDe CuyperN (2016) Review of 30 years of longitudinal studies on the association between job insecurity and health and well-being: Is there causal evidence?Australian Psychologist51(1): 18–31. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12176
22.
De WitteHVander ElstTDe CuyperN (2015) Job insecurity, health and well-being. In: VuoriJBlonkRPriceRH (eds) Sustainable Working Lives: Managing Work Transitions and Health Throughout the Life Course. Springer, pp. 109–128. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9798-6
23.
DouglasKMSuttonRMCichockaA (2017) The psychology of conspiracy theories. Current Directions in Psychological Science26(6): 538–542. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721417718261
24.
EarnshawVAEatonLAKalichmanSC, et al. (2020) COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs, health behaviors, and policy support. Translational Behavioral Medicine10(4): 850–856. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibaa090
25.
EmmeneggerPMarxPSchraffD (2015) Labour market disadvantage, political orientations and voting: How adverse labour market experiences translate into electoral behaviour. Socio-Economic Review13(2): 189–213. https://doi.org/10.1093/ser/mwv003
26.
Eurofound (2023) Psychosocial risks to workers’ well-being: Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic, European Working Conditions Telephone Survey 2021 series, Publications Office of the European Union.
27.
FreemanDBentallR (2017) The concomitants of conspiracy concerns. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology52: 595–604.
28.
FreemanDWaiteFRosebrockL, et al. (2022) Coronavirus conspiracy beliefs, mistrust, and compliance with government guidelines in England. Psychological Medicine52(2): 251–263. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720001890
29.
FreyCBOsborneMA (2017) The future of employment: How susceptible are jobs to computerisation?Technological Forecasting & Social Change114: 254–280. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1016/j.techfore.2016.08.019
HamsherJHGellerJDRotterJB (1968) Interpersonal trust, internal-external control, and the Warren Commission Report. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology9: 210–215.
33.
HayesAF (2017) Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-based Approach. Guilford Press.
34.
HeineSJProulxTVohsKD (2006) The meaning maintenance model: On the coherence of social motivations. Personality and Social Psychology Review10(2): 88–110.
35.
HellgrenJSverkeMIsakssonK (1999) A two-dimensional approach to job insecurity: Consequences for employee attitudes and well-being. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology8(2): 179–195.
36.
HobfollSEHalbeslebenJNeveuJ-PWestmanM (2018) Conservation of resources in the organizational context: The reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior5: 103–128. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640
37.
JahodaM (1982) Employment and Unemployment. A Social-Psychological Analysis. Cambridge University Press.
38.
JiangLLavaysseLM (2018) Cognitive and affective job insecurity: A meta-analysis and a primary study. Journal of Management44(6): 2307–2342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206318773853
39.
KeimACLandisRSPierceCAEarnestDR (2014) Why do employees worry about their jobs? A meta-analytic review of predictors of job insecurity. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology19: 269–290. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036743
40.
KlugKSelenkoEVan HootegemA, et al. (2024) A lead article to go deeper and broader in job insecurity research: Understanding an individual perception in its social and political context. Applied Psychology: International Review73(4): 1960–1993. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12535
41.
KoftaMSoralWBilewiczM (2020) What breeds conspiracy antisemitism? The role of political uncontrollability and uncertainty in the belief in Jewish conspiracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology118(5): 900–918. https://doi.org/10.1037/pspa0000183
42.
LåstadLPienaarJNäswallK, et al. (2025) Moving on up now? A meta-analysis of the associations between job insecurity and career-related outcomes. Scandinavian Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology10(1): 2. https://doi.org/10.16993/sjwop.275
43.
LaurijssenISpruytB (2015) Not for people like us? A six-year panel study of the mutual relationship between feelings of relative deprivation and occupational status among young adults in Flanders. Social Indicator Research124: 617–635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-014-0794-4
44.
LazarusRSFolkmanS (1984) Stress Appraisals and Coping. Springer.
45.
Lazauskaite-ZabielskeJUrbanaviciuteIVander ElstTDe WitteH (2019) Explaining the link between qualitative job insecurity and attitudes: The role of perceived overall justice. Baltic Journal of Management14(2): 330–344. https://doi.org/10.1108/BJM-08-2018-0293
46.
LoziakAHavrillováD (2024) Conspiracy mentality: How it relates to populism, relative deprivation, mistrust of expertise and voting behaviour. Europe’s Journal of Psychology20(1): 1–15. https://doi.org/10.5964/ejop.10049
47.
LoziakAPiterováI (2023) Populist attitudes as a mediator between relative deprivation and conspiracy mentality. Studia Psychologica65(3): 262–278. https://doi.org/10.31577/sp.2023.03.879
48.
MilesEW (2019) Approaching the study of business and management as a profession. In: MilesEW (ed.) The Purpose of the Business School: Alternative Views and Implications for the Future. Springer, pp. 87–97.
49.
MuthénLKMuthénBO (2017) Mplus User’s Guide: Eighth edition. Muthén and Muthén.
50.
OleksyTWnukAMaisonDŁyśA (2020) Content matters: Different predictors and social consequences of general and government-related conspiracy theories on COVID-19. Personality and Individual Differences168: 110289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110289
51.
PattynSVan HielADhontKOnraeE. (2012) Stripping the political cynic: A psychological exploration of the concept of political cynicism. European Journal of Personality26: 566–579. https://doi.org/10.1002/per
52.
PiccoliBDe WitteH. (2015) Job insecurity and emotional exhaustion: Testing psychological contract breach versus distributive injustice as indicators of lack of reciprocity. Work & Stress29(3): 246–263. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/02678373.2015.1075624
53.
ProbstTJiangLBensonW (2018) Job insecurity and anticipated job loss: A primer and exploration of possible interventions. In: KleheU-CVan HooftEAJ (eds) Oxford Handbook on Job Loss and Job Search. Oxford University Press, pp. 31–53.
54.
RobinsonSLRousseauDM (1994) Violating the psychological contract: Not the exception but the norm. Journal of Organizational Behavior15: 229–245.
55.
RollLDe WitteHWangH-J (2023) Conceptualization and validation of the Occupation Insecurity Scale (OCIS): Measuring employees’ occupation insecurity due to automation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health20: 2589, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032589
56.
RollLCProbstTMDe BeerL, et al. (under review) The occupation insecurity scale: Testing measurement and structural invariance across four countries. Journal of Business and Psychology. Manuscript submitted for publication.
57.
RousseauDM (1995) Psychological Contracts in Organizations: Understanding Written and Unwritten Agreements. Sage.
58.
SchynsBvon CollaniG (2002) A new occupational self-efficacy scale and its relation to personality constructs and organizational variables. European Journal of Work & Organizational Psychology11(2): 219–241.
59.
SchraffD (2018) Labor market disadvantage and political alienation: A longitudinal perspective on the heterogeneous risk in temporary employment. Acta Politica53: 48–67.
60.
SelenkoEDe WitteH (2021) How job insecurity affects political attitudes: Identity threat plays a role. Applied Psychology: An International Review70(3): 1267–1294. https://doi.org/10.1111/apps.12275
61.
SelenkoEMäkikangasAStrideCB (2017) Does job insecurity threaten who you are? Introducing a social identity perspective to explain well-being and performance consequences of job insecurity. Journal of Organizational Behavior38(6): 856–875. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2172
62.
SelenkoESchilbachMBriegerS, et al. (2025) The political consequences of work: An integrative review. Journal of Management51(6): 2355–2388. https://doi.org/10.1177/01492063241301337
63.
ShossMK (2017) Job insecurity: An integrative review and agenda for future research. Journal of Management43(6): 1911–1939. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206317691574
64.
ShossMVan HootegemASelenkoEDe WitteH (2023) The job insecurity of others: On the role of perceived national job insecurity during the COVID-19 pandemic. Economic and Industrial Democracy44(2): 385–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143831X221076176
65.
SingerMM (2013) What goes around comes around: Perceived vulnerable employment and economic voting in developing countries. European Journal of Political Research52(2): 143–163.
SmithHJPettigrewTFPippinGMBialosiewiczS (2012) Relative deprivation: A theoretical and meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Review16(3): 203–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868311430825
68.
SpurkDHoferAHirschiA, et al. (2022) Conceptualizing career insecurity: Toward a better understanding and measurement of a multidimensional construct. Personnel Psychology75: 253–294. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12493
69.
SverkeMHellgrenJ (2002) The nature of job insecurity: Understanding employment uncertainty on the brink of a new millennium. Applied Psychology: An International Review51(1): 23–42.
70.
SverkeMHellgrenJNäswallK (2002) No security: A meta-analysis and review of job insecurity and its consequences. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology7(3): 242–264.
71.
SverkeMHellgrenJNäswallK, et al. (2004) Job Insecurity and Union Membership: European Unions in the Wake of Flexible Production. Peter Lang.
72.
SverkeMHernandezIFTanimoyoAS, et al. (2023) Can unions represent the interests of insecure workers? In: De CuyperNSelenkoEEuwemaMSchaufeliW (eds) Job Insecurity, Precarious Employment and Burnout: Facts and Fables in Work Psyhology Research. Edward Elgar, pp. 105–125.
73.
SverkeMLåstadLHellgrenJ, et al. (2019) A meta-analysis of job insecurity and employee performance: Testing temporal aspects, rating source, welfare regime, and union density as moderators. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health16(14): 2536. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16142536
74.
SwamiV (2012) Social psychological origins of conspiracy theories: The case of the Jewish conspiracy theory in Malaysia. Frontiers in Psychology3: 1–9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00280
75.
SwamiVChamorro-PremuzicTFurnhamA (2010) Unanswered questions: A preliminary investigation of personality and individual difference predictors of 9/11 conspiracist beliefs. Applied Cognitive Psychology24(6): 749–761. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1583
76.
VandekerkhoveTStruyvenLGoesaertT (2020a) Tijdelijke werkloosheid tijdens Covid-19: een buffer tegen ontslag met twee gezichten. [Temporary unemployment during Covid-19: a buffer against dismissal with two faces]. Belgisch Tijdschrift voor Sociale Zekerheid1: 175–190.
77.
VandekerkhoveTStruyvenLGoesaertTVetsP (2020b) Hotspots van tijdelijke werkloosheid, hotspots van arbeidsmarktdynamiek? Sectorale impact, omvang en profiel van tijdelijke werkloosheid in de eerste maanden van de coronacrisis. [Hotspots of temporary unemployment? Sectoral impact, size and profile of temporary unemployment during the first months of the corona crisis]. HIVA-KU Leuven.
78.
Vander ElstTDe WitteH (2024) An introduction to job insecurity. In: CooperCBroughP (eds) Elgar Encyclopedia of Occupational Health Psychology. Edward Elgar, pp. 14–17. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781035313389
79.
Vander ElstTDe CuyperNBaillienE, et al. (2016) Perceived control and psychological contract breach as explanations of the relationships between job insecurity, job strain and coping reactions: Towards a theoretical integration. Stress & Health36(2): 100–116. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2584
80.
Vander ElstTDe CuyperNDe WitteH (2011) The role of perceived control in the relationship between job insecurity and psychological outcomes: Moderator or mediator?Stress & Health27: e215–e227.
81.
Vander ElstTRichterASverkeM, et al. (2014a) Threat of losing valued job features: The role of perceived control in mediating the effect of qualitative job insecurity on job strain and psychological withdrawal. Work & Stress28(2): 143–164. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1080/02678373.2014.899651
82.
Vander ElstTVan den BroeckADe CuyperNDe WitteH (2014b) On the reciprocal relationship between job insecurity and employee well-being: Mediation by perceived control?Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology87: 671–693. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12068
83.
Van HootegemAVan HootegemASelenkoEDe WitteH (2022) Work is political: Distributive injustice as a mediating mechanism in the relationship between job insecurity and political cynicism. Political Psychology43(2): 375–396. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12766
Van ProoijenJAckerM (2015) The influence of control on belief in conspiracy theories: Conceptual and applied extensions. Applied Cognitive Psychology29: 753–761. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3161
86.
Van ProoijenJWDouglasKM (2017) Conspiracy theories as part of history: The role of societal crisis situations. Memory Studies10(3): 323–333. https://doi.org/10.1177/1750698017701615
87.
Van ProoijenJWDouglasKM (2018) Belief in conspiracy theories: Basic principles of an emerging research domain. European Journal of Social Psychology48: 897–908.
88.
Van ProoijenJWStamanJKrouwelAPM (2018) Increased conspiracy beliefs among ethnic and Muslim minorities. Applied Cognitive Psychology32: 661–667. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.3442
89.
Van VuurenT (1990) Met ontslag bedreigd. Werknemers in onzekerheid over hun arbeidsplaats bij veranderingen in de organisatie [Job insecurity. Employees in uncertainty during organisational changes]. VU Uitgeverij.
90.
WhitsonJAGalinskyAD (2008) Lacking control increases illusory pattern perception. Science322: 115–117.
