Abstract
Teaching public policy, social policy, public management and public administration is an important vocation. It has the capacity to help equip the next generation of public and civil servants for the multitude of complex and challenging tasks they must undertake. Teaching public policy builds capacity within the public service, and can also be useful in training and preparing those who work alongside government, providing voluntary or contracted services.
Teaching public policy, social policy, public management and public administration is an important vocation. It has the capacity to help equip the next generation of public and civil servants for the multitude of complex and challenging tasks they must undertake. Teaching public policy builds capacity within the public service, and can also be useful in training and preparing those who work alongside government, providing voluntary or contracted services.
This special issue is dedicated to research focused on the ways in which we teach public policy in Australia.
In the Australian university system, countless scholars work on policy-related research and respond to policy problems, ranging from climate change and education to animal welfare, tax policy and much more. Many of these scholars make important contributions to the domestic and international policy scene. While universities in Australia employ academics in field-specific policy areas, many universities also employ what is termed ‘public policy scholars’. This term refers to academics who have a specific subject area of interest, as stated above, but also take on teaching public policy and public administration in the broader sense for both undergraduates and post-graduates. At the undergraduate level, such public policy and administration courses are often part of a larger arts, politics or social science degree; at the post-graduate level, Master’s degrees in public policy (and administration, or governance) often attract students from the public services and those working in the third sector. The latter offering also attracts a diverse range of international students seeking qualifications in policy-related fields.
Australian policy scholars invariably approach teaching public policy and public administration in order to instil skills and practices for future public administrators. While teaching involves abilities such as writing policy briefs and policy memos, the content also encourages the values associated with public life, such as the good citizen, collective responsibility and the concept of public good. The primary aim therefore is to introduce students to the intersection between politics, policy and the role of public services that shape how people live in contemporary society. Key to enhancing the learning experience of students new to policy and administration is to illustrate how it is possible, through administrators and policy makers, to make a significant contribution to democratic principles and enhance the lives of people in the community. For many students in the Australian university system, public policy and administration courses provide ‘real life’ examples of problems and, in many instances, these courses highlight possible pathways for students once their university education is complete.
According to Shand and Howell (2015: 212), however, teaching public policy and administration has been devalued within the competitive environment of public universities. Australia, similar to other developed nations, embraced the mantel of New Public Management which emphasises downsizing and privatisation. Rosenbaum (2014) argues this has thrown into question the relevance of teaching students the values and skills necessary for public life. Students therefore are unsure as to the ‘worth’ of seeking a career in the public sector. In Australia, public servants have a colloquial image as ‘grey cardigan wearers’, or in other words, bland and unimaginative; this view is certainly discounted in public sector circles (Chapman, cited in Donaldson, 2016). There are also attitudes unfolding across the world, such as anti-government and populist forces, that challenge the status of governments, as well as public administrators, and their roles in responding to social problems (Anheier, 2019).
In this global environment, teaching public policy and administration raises many questions regarding its overall intention. On the one hand, courses attempt to teach students generic skills that are transferable in the employment market, that for all intents and purposes will set students up for flexible employment options. This includes training generalist bureaucrats and educating specialists for instrumental and technocratic approaches. On the other hand, however, contemporary teaching environments draw on a range of didactical strategies that encourage students to engage in deep levels of learning and understanding that aim to reinforce the ideals of democracy (Van der Meer and Marks, 2018: 136). In effect, teaching public policy and administration attempts to cover two main components which, at times, may be in conflict: one technocratic, and the other deeply couched in the principles of fairness, equity and freedom.
The dynamics involved in teaching students the requisite skills for public life as well as ensuring new administrators are well versed in the ideals and principles of democracy are complex. Undergraduate programmes provide introductory courses that cover the broad aspects of public policy making, which are embedded in a general degree structure. It has only been in the last 20 years that the Australian university sector embarked on post-graduate study in policy and administration. The Australia and New Zealand School of Government (ANZSOG), introduced in 2003, works in partnership with governments in order to contribute to improved public policy and administration practices and ensure there are well-educated, insightful administrators (Podger, 2017: 155). As post-graduate study has expanded across Australia, and greater emphasis is placed on addressing intractable policy problems, Master’s-level programmes in public policy and public administration are offered at most major universities. According to a report by the Grattan Institute, the number of students undertaking broad post-graduate course work study has increased from 14% to 25% of all enrolments (Norten and Cherastidtham, 2018: 21).
Teaching public policy is no doubt situated in a complex, changing environment. As contemporary society in Australia and across the globe faces unsettled and increasingly complex challenges, a greater level of ethical leadership from government, the public services and the community is necessary (Anheier, 2019). Policy makers and administrators require significant conceptual ability and flexibility to grasp societal changes that emerge at an alarming pace. For example, in Australia issues of climate and energy policy are writ large in policy discussions (Australian Government, 2017; Finkel, 2017), as is the treatment of refugees and asylum seekers (Killedar and Harris, 2017; McAdams and Chong, 2014), and the relationship between agriculture and mining also feature in policy responses (Lawrence et al., 2013). While these issues can be addressed in content-specific policy environments, teaching students to explore and unpack the democratic ideals that underpin policy responses alerts all to the assumptions embedded in any policy proposal. Indeed, teaching the policy process as a transparent, inclusive and informed process is one of the ways in which democratic values may be given real-life political application. In doing so, they may be further affirmed.
According to Leighninger (2010), teaching policy and administration alerts students to the principles of democracy and the importance of values and integrity necessary to deliver sound and effective public services. Van der Meer and Marks (2018: 130–131) argue that this is especially important for contemporary society as it encourages students to be attentive to a range of complexities – from recognising the interdependency between local, national and international policy networks, to the fact that increasingly diverse populations may engender underlying tensions that are difficult to comprehend. Teaching public policy and administration therefore requires attention to skills as well as engendering high-level conceptual ability that enables students to link theories with practice, while also enabling students to reflect upon their own values and positions (Van der Meer and Marks, 2018: 136).
As teaching public policy and administration covers several purposes, one of the primary drivers for the university sector, both in Australia and around the world, is to link students into the employment market (Clarke, 2018). For many students, higher education is perceived to lead to security in employment, by offering adaptability and flexibility in seeking a range of employment options in an increasingly competitive job market (Jackson and Wilton, 2017: 748). For those currently employed within the public service, tertiary education, especially at the Master’s level, is integral to embracing the integration between theory, practice, evaluation and research, thus enabling innovative solutions and outcomes (Anheier, 2019; Ysa et al., 2017). However, as several scholars point out, there is a mismatch between what is often taught within policy and administration and what employers perceive to be the necessary skills for an effective policy maker or administrator (Shay, 2016; Anheier, 2019). While an understanding of political theory and the application of sound democratic practice raise ideals around values and the public good, often the ‘business’ of public policy is couched in regulation and legislative processes that reward the ‘science of muddling through’ (Lindblom, 1959), as opposed to innovative and entrepreneurial solutions.
The increasing use of the digital world and the implications associated with e-governance and digital platforms that aim to increase community participation also have an impact on teaching public policy and administration. In terms of teaching, these changes relate to two key areas: first, the increasing use of online, digital formats, including blended classes and online discussions, that aim to free up time for more interactive teaching (Van der Meer and Marks, 2018); and second, the increasing use of information and communication technologies (ICT) to communicate and deliver open data (Lnenicka and Komarkova, 2019) within the broader community. As public agencies and political institutions enable open access to large amounts of data, students of policy and administration require the capacity and skills necessary to examine and analyse large data sets, or at the very least to understand the basic assumptions upon which the data is based.
In terms of the shift towards online and blended formats, the importance of curriculum design is emphasised. Curriculum design aims to capture both aspects of a specific discipline or ‘spine’-related knowledge and, more recently, to include context-related knowledge (Shay, 2016) – in other words, knowledge that is often co-developed with external stakeholders (Millar, 2016). In the Australian university sector, the role of interdisciplinary practices and problem-based learning is embedded in policy and administration courses to stimulate critical understanding (see Shay, 2016; Millar, 2016). Curriculum therefore is both ‘multi-disciplinary’ and ‘flexible’; it aims to ensure students are equipped with skills to meet the growing challenges within society. For example, Murdoch University in Western Australia (2019) explains in its Curriculum Policy that the university is committed to being responsive to the current and emerging needs of the communities in which it is located and the industries which employ its graduates.
In Australia, universities face pressures to attract students and to manage complex funding arrangements with government through a student-driven demand model (Ling et al., 2013; Universities Australia, 2017). These pressures increase competition among the university sector. While universities grapple with these pressures, the importance of ensuring students are equipped to address the increasing tensions in the political world are heightened. Diamond and Schultz (2018) highlight that the world is retreating from democracy, and this unprecedented attack on democratic principles requires a strong focus on integrity in scholarship and education (see also Norris, 2017). Teaching policy and administration therefore is integral to the protection and promotion of the political institutions that enable open, transparent decision making, and ensure public decision makers are accountable to society (Diamond and Schultz, 2018: 206). This represents significant challenges for academics who teach public policy. Key to challenging polarised positions, but still encouraging discussion and debate on conflicting values and contested evidence, public policy academics play an integral role in enabling students to participate in policy discourse and political discussion.
In Australia, public policy offerings are often relatively modest, meaning each Australian university has an equally small number of specialist policy scholars working within a politics or social science department. As a result, policy scholars benefit from only limited support and collaboration from other policy-specific specialists. As a way to combat these tensions, the Australian Policy Studies Research Group, a sub-group of the Australian Political Studies Association (APSA), re-formed in 2016. Its purpose is to unite and support public policy scholars in Australia by providing avenues for networking, research collaboration and professional development. In 2018, the Policy Studies Research Group was awarded a small grant to host a two-day workshop on public policy education. Public policy specialists from around Australia were invited to present their ideas and experiences in relation to pedagogy and best practices in public policy education. The workshop was hosted by UNSW, Sydney and featured nine paper presentations given by PhD candidates, university faculty and representatives from ANZSOG. The papers in this special edition are the outcome of this workshop. The issues raised in the following papers expand upon the challenges we have already outlined, but also touch on many more, including how to engage students who have little interest or knowledge of politics and policy, how to teach in large groups, and the importance of academic integrity, to name but a few.
Prue Brown and the role of tutors in policy education
In the first article of this special issue, Prue Brown opens with a discussion of the challenges faced when teaching first-year students who have little or no background in politics, policy or administration. Brown’s paper also provides some insightful reflections of the role of graduate teaching assistants (in Australia termed ‘tutors’) and their capacity to engage with new students on topical issues and the relevance of politics. Brown importantly highlights that in the Australian system, tutors often perform the bulk of the face-to-face teaching and, as such, have a close engagement with the student cohort. Brown’s work highlights two key findings: first, introductory courses on policy, politics and administration are more effective when the curriculum design inverts the theory–practice link. For students new to university study, and to questions of policy and administration, linking the learning process to ‘real life’ or ‘practice’ issues with the theory component as a way of exploring assumptions aligned to the study of policy and administration more closely sits with people’s experiences. The second insight drawn from Brown’s work refers to the role of teaching assistants. Often in the Australian university system the work of tutors and teaching assistants goes unnoticed and unacknowledged. Brown’s idea of developing the ‘Policy Pack’ with relevant information enables students to feel at ease with their first steps into the world of public policy, politics and administration.
Yvonne Haigh and shifting student expectations
In the second paper, Yvonne Haigh extends these points with an analysis of nine years of student evaluations of a more advanced public policy course. Haigh situates the paper in relation to the increasing levels of complexity, both in terms of intractable policy and administration problems and changing teaching environments. Haigh draws out the key issues raised by students over the course of a decade, and proposes a set of reflections on the changing nature of teaching university students. The survey results highlight that for many students, the transition to online learning and interactive teaching tools heightens levels of concern and, for some, can increase a sense of vulnerability. Haigh’s work stresses that enabling students to grapple with complex policy and political issues can reinforce views that democracy and the political realm is not to be trusted. The paper outlines a range of strategies and suggestions aimed to help students move through these increasing levels of complexity.
Manwaring, Holloway and Coffey on student employability
Rob Manwaring, Josh Holloway and Brian Coffey take up the complex issue of engaging with industry on curriculum design for students studying public policy. The authors develop a framework to assist academics and other relevant stakeholders to work through the pros and cons of engagement, and raise a set of questions regarding conceptualising the university/industry nexus. The paper draws out the broad assumptions of the Australian university system’s push towards ‘employability’ and what appears to be an acceptance that engagement is the pathway to student employment and therefore a strong ‘selling point’ on generating effective education outcomes. Manwaring, Holloway and Coffey suggest that a cautionary approach to engagement, especially in terms of curriculum design with the broader public services, is more fruitful. In their view, a considered approach may provide the means to engender a nuanced, less ‘cookie cutter’ method of educating new policy makers and public administrators.
Joshua Newman and academic integrity in the Australian higher education sector
The importance of academic integrity is the focus of Joshua Newman’s paper. Academic integrity in the Australian university sector refers to the dishonest behaviour of students, including plagiarism, cheating and collusion. Newman draws on a set of 92 cases of suspected ‘academic breach’ from students studying policy-related undergraduate subjects in one Australian university from January 2016 to July 2017. Newman’s review of the 92 cases raises important considerations for academics teaching within a broad-based arts or social science degree. Primarily the analysis demonstrates that universities could develop far more effective preventative strategies rather that those that simply punish the offender.
Catherine Cochrane and policy education as an anti-corruption tool
The issue of integrity and ethics is expanded upon in the final paper in the series. Catherine Cochrane examines the role of integrity education as a tool to reduce misconduct and corruption within the public sector. Cochrane reviews what are termed ‘educative events’ for public servants to attend integrity education as part of their training. Across Australia, state-based regions have a range of anti-corruption commissions that, among other practices, are responsible for educating administrators in terms of appropriate conduct and decision-making behaviour. Cochrane draws out key data from a range of state-based jurisdictions to question the efficacy of these education events. Cochrane argues that the current focus of delivering generic content such as probity, accountability and legislative requirements for reporting, underpinned by an assumption that attendance at these events is a marker of success, is highly problematic. The insights drawn from Cochrane’s paper demonstrate the centrality of teaching integrity to administrators and reinforce the necessity to embed deep moral learning as part of the skill base for all public administrators.
This special issue on teaching public policy and administration in Australia comprises a set of reflections that hopefully resonate with policy scholars across the globe. The papers demonstrate that the Australian university sector is grappling with challenges in relation to educating the next generation of policy makers and administrators. These challenges do not have a simple answer. While each paper highlights different challenges, such as how to effectively link the theoretical with the practical, the increasing reliance of online and interactive teaching methods, or the assumption that the tertiary education/industry nexus is unproblematic, the authors also offer important insights regarding the centrality of enabling students to explore and consider democratic principles.
Footnotes
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: These papers were originally presented at a workshop on teaching public policy. That workshop was funded by a small grant from the Australian Political Studies Association (APSA).
