Communication pedagogy in public affairs programs: Insights from a study of MPA and MPP curricula

Abstract

Communication is a critical government function that has important implications for public administration and effective governance. This research study explores how communication competencies are taught in public affairs programs in the United States. Based on a general web content analysis of graduate programs, and specific analyses of course titles, course descriptions, and course syllabi, this study examines the extent to which communication competencies are integrated into public affairs curricula. This paper also discusses how communication skills map on to the five NASPAA core competencies. Compared to previous decades, communication courses are increasingly emphasized in public administration programs. But there is greater potential for such offerings in the age of digital government, social media, and Artificial Intelligence. This study’s findings have important implications for the teaching and practice of public affairs.

Keywords

communication pedagogy skills competencies government

Communication as a government function

Communication has been an essential, formal component of government function in the United States for many decades. The quality of government is important for the well-being of citizens.

It is dependent on the nature of the exchange of information and communication between the government and citizens. Governing in a democracy is defined by the nature of communication and interaction between the government and its citizens (Goncalves and Santos, 2017). Democracy is enhanced by the interaction and participation of citizens in the policy-making process, thus creating policies and functions that are reflective of the collective knowledge and efforts of the public (Kang and Gearhart, 2010). Such an environment begins with effective communication from government and the public sector organizations.

Canel and Sanders (2012) defined government communications as managed communication by public officials targeted towards specific audiences for civic and political purposes. Pasquier (2018, p.441) offers a broader definition; public communication is “any activity by public institutions and organizations designed to transmit and share information with the primary purpose of presenting and explaining public decisions and actions, establishing their legitimacy, promoting recognized values, and helping maintain social cohesion.” Government communication also involves the study of structures and processes that are involved in the communication between government and publics (Johansson and Raunio 2019).

Government communications must also perform the fine balancing act between political marketing and public relations (Goncalves and Santos, 2017). The ability to manage media coverage influences how government frames its communication messages. Effective communication is important to establish better public relations for public agencies. Public relations is a strategic act of communication by an organization with the goals of promoting its achievements and improving its image with internal and external stakeholders (Lamizet and Silem, 1997). Lee (2014, p.5) defined public relations as “the venue for government agencies to engage in the public accountability that they are obligated to in a democracy.” The primary objective of an organization’s public relations is to gain the trust of the public for the services it provides, understand and anticipate stakeholder expectations, and establish an institutional image (Pocovnicu, 2014). Political marketing and public relations can be adequately performed by administrators by establishing better communication mechanisms in their organizations.

This is no small task. Citizens in the U.S. have a negative view of government communicators. Often stereotyped as “spin doctors” or “image drivers,” government communicators are sometimes viewed with distrust. Strangely, and despite this remediable characterization, government still tends to underemphasize effective communications with the public, holding onto the age-old negative attitude towards public relations, both in theory and practice. Government communications remains an under-researched topic, “finding itself in a kind of theoretical no-man’s land between political communication, public relations and organizational communication research” (Canel and Sanders, 2012, p.1).

Government communications used to refer solely to messaging from top-level, government executives. Now, it refers to communication activities by personnel at all levels in the organization as well as those by elected leaders. Government communication is distinct from the deliberative communication of the legislature. It is instead multilayered. Its practices and focus are also different depending on the level of government. The federal government emphasizes external communication over internal communication, while state, city, and county governments place equal emphasis on both categories of communication (Horsley et al. 2010). Moreover, conflicting messages from different levels of government are possible, particularly during crises and emergencies.

Government communication is also distinct from private communication. Public oriented, it operates in a political environment. Public administrators and elected officials have shied away from using public communication or public relations as a management strategy, their private-sector counterparts have embraced public relations and communication (Liu et al., 2010).

The authors list several contributing factors to such disinterest for communications in government – federalism, leadership opportunities, legal frameworks, media scrutiny, politics, poor public perception, professional development, and public good (Liu et al., 2010). The federal system of government enables a more decentralized approach to communication. Lacking a formal structure, it is more conducive to interactions with other governmental groups rather than NGOs, nonprofits, private entities, civic organizations, etc. Few government communicators are in leadership or management roles; they are mostly confined to technical positions in organizations. Public administrators must also work within a rigorous legal framework. Intense media scrutiny and the political environment can make public messaging difficult and creativity an afterthought. Traditional distrust of government creates another hurdle. Added to that is the lack of training and professional development opportunities for government communication professionals (Liu et al., 2010). This final barrier could be the first to fall.

Graduate programs in public administration and public policy have the potential to impart the necessary training and skills to public administrators. Digital technologies are introducing new dimensions in government communication practices. Social media, blogs, and podcasts can empower administrators to directly communicate and connect with citizens, without the intermediary media and reports acting as the traditional “gatekeepers or censors of information” (Graham and Avery, 2013). By reducing bias or the spinning of facts, the public could grow to trust government again. Social media can promote citizen engagement among various sections of the community and offer tremendous potential for messaging penetration in crisis and emergency situations.

Governments are underutilizing such digital potential by prioritizing one-way communication rather than two-way engagement. This often results in a gap between citizen expectations and the actual use of social media by government (Neely and Collins, 2018). Such attitudes can further alienate those publics with more social media experience. This disconnect between the promise of social media and actual practice is a both a governance problem and a lost opportunity. Lack of skills and training in using social media for government use and a general lack of awareness of best practices are often blamed (Mearns et al. 2015). The disinterest shown by government leadership, both by administrators and political leadership, is also a likely cause. This can be frustrating for citizens interacting with street-level bureaucrats and front-line workers, particularly the young and those in need of social services (Beresford, 2014).

That stated, public administrators should not be assumed to be averse to using technologies. Daily operations can create hurdles to updating skills. This often contributes to them not recognizing or supporting the use of social media. There is also the need to educate younger employees on the privacy implications of social media (Mearns et al., 2015). Such attitudes have broader implications, both for effective communication with stakeholders, and recruiting and hiring young people.

Pedagogy of communication in public administration

Pracademic in nature, public administration is meant to be relevant for both academics and practitioners alike. Researchers actively study the pedagogy of public administration, with a focus on the MPA and MPP programs. Some of the topics explored include public budgeting, human resources, health, technology, and global and comparative education (Manoharan et al., 2018). Such studies and findings are valuable for public administration as it sustains the vital link between theory and practice.

Lee, in a 2009 article in the Journal of Public Affairs Education, advocated for the return of the study of public relations to the public administration curriculum. He noted the pre-dominance of the news media in shaping the narrative of any public issue, leaving little space for any differing voices. As he saw it, “…any public servant who openly disagrees with the latest media narrative gets pigeonholed as a rigid bureaucrat who is out” (p. 1). Once the narrative has been set by the news media, administrators can only change it with great difficulty. It is the same for issues deemed unimportant by the media.

Lee (2000) highlighted many such questions and the importance of teaching communications in public administration pedagogy. The early 20^th century was the heyday of public relations and government communications to external stakeholders. Herring (1935) considered the effective use of publicity an important factor for government to attain its administrative goals. Woolpert (1940) saw public relations as an integral aspect of the field and its practitioners. During those years, there was also a concerted effort by various Municipal Research Bureaus to measure and report performance information to their citizens. However, such enthusiasm for public relations and public communications began to fade away, both in practice and in academia. Lee (1998) compared public administration textbooks from the 1920–50s to the 1980–90s and found a remarkable decrease in emphasis on the topic.

However, recent studies, beginning with Lee (2009), suggest a revival in the teaching, learning, and researching public relations and public communications as core components of public administration curricula. The research on public relations in government has also deepened. Rather than just focusing on techniques, scholars are asking the fundamental questions of why public relations and external communications are important for public administrators. Lee also noted the increasing emphasis on public relations and communication in public administration pedagogical outlets such as JPAE and publications related to public administration and communication. This phenomenon has also been aided by the emergence of e-government and social media as distinct fields of study since the early 2000s. The growing scope of digital technologies has created new channels for governments to interact with stakeholders, and these changes are well-documented in the public administration and e-government literature.

The primary focus of MPA and MPP programs is to create leaders and managers. It goes without saying that an effective leader must be a good communicator. “Communication involves the skills of creating an effective message, analyzing the audience, listening to and understanding the audience’s needs, knowing how to use the tools to bring the message to the audience and to determine which tool is right for the situation, and using the right timing for the desired results” (Raphael and Nesbary, 2005: p.2). The knowledge of basic communication skills and techniques can help enhance the morale and confidence of public administrators in their interactions with the public, which can involve negotiation, coalition building, and conflict resolution. In democratic forms of government, it is essential that public administrators keep the public informed with relevant and reliable information (Raphael and Nesbary, 2005).

The advent of digital technologies and social media have provided multiple avenues for public administrators and citizens to bring focus to pressing public issues. Administrators must be trained to use such technologies strategically and judiciously. Private-sector managers can ignore the media. Public cannot. They have an obligation to report to the public and must sometimes collaborate with the news media. Freedom of information laws in many nations are also mandating that administrators be accountable to the public (Lee, 2009).

Purpose of the research

Communication skills are essential for public administrators. Scholars have long contemplated the skills needed and how they can be taught through the MPA programs. Manns and Waugh (1989) suggested, in this domain, public administration must draw from other disciplines such as communications and business management as well as other professional groups. Some specific suggestions pertained to memos and letters. The authors also cautioned MPA programs to avoid underemphasizing basic communication competencies in pursuit of the then “hot” topics of computer literacy and quantitative courses.

Despite this warning, the communication gap between the government and the public has widened, and it has diminished public confidence and trust in government (Heise, 1985). Fewer textbooks are dedicated specifically to external communication, compared to other fields such as budgeting or personnel management. Government communication is focused on reaching out to targeted audiences. The public’s confidence in government can be restored and rebuilt only through active public communication by government at all levels (Heise, 1985). Instead of focusing scarce resources on creating an exclusive PR department, each public sector employee and manager should practice effective public communication.

Heise also raised an interesting point on the role of media: “…if communication between government and public is inadequate, it is the failure of the media in its role as a free and independent press to live up fully to its constitutional responsibilities” (p. 12). He rightly noted the media is primarily focused on mass communication. As indirect reporting by the news media gradually declines, the onus is on public administrators to practice direct reporting to the public (Lee, 2002). Such direct reporting can be done through both traditional and digital channels. To fulfill this obligation, MPA programs must recognize the value and significance of public communication via direct reporting by public administrators.

Much of the literature in public communication studies is narrowly focused on internal organizational issues or communication in specific situations such as disasters or emergencies (Ho and Cho, 2017). Public communication should instead be viewed as essential to the delivery of public services and improving the quality of citizens’ lives. Equally important, it influences the perception of government performance (Charbonneau and Van Ryzin, 2015).

The nation’s demographic changes also require students to be trained in inclusive work cultures (White and Rice, 2015). Cultural competency relies on communication which is becoming an integral part of this practice (Carrizales, 2010; Kriplani et al., 2006). In some cases, legislation such as the Social Security Act (1965) mandate that organizations address cultural barriers in communicating to their constituents when delivering services (Bailey, 2015). In today’s workspace, communication can unlock and amplify human capabilities in organizations (Feyz et al., 2020). This can also help reduce conflicting signals from various government entities and provide a more coherent and clearer message.

Every public administrator should have essential communication skills and be cognizant of the implications of messaging in an increasingly tech-savvy society. This research aims to understand the current state of communication pedagogy in public affairs curricula. Specifically, this paper explores the extent to which MPA and MPP programs teach communication skills that could be used in personal, inter and intra organizational communication and external communication. This study, through course title, description, and syllabi analyses, explores the extent to which communications skills are integrated in MPA and MPP curricula. It also provides recommendations for schools and programs in teaching and training future public administrators on communication competencies.

Methods

This study’s primary method of research was web content analysis. The main purpose was to gain a comprehensive understanding of how communication skills and competencies are taught in the graduate programs by analyzing multiple sources of documents and web content. Data for this study were gathered from (1) course titles, (2) course descriptions, and (3) course syllabi pertaining to communication pedagogy in public administration and policy programs. First, the roster of all accredited and non-accredited programs from https://naspaa.org was accessed. As of 1 December 2020, there were 356 programs listed on the accrediting body’s website. Second, a thorough web content analysis of the 356 programs, specifically of the webpages that list their curricula was conducted. We identified a total of 119 courses across 74 programs that were tied to communication. The course titles and descriptions were obtained from the programs’ websites. The directors of the 74 programs that offered these courses were then contacted by email and syllabi of courses related to communication were requested. This effort yielded a total of 16 syllabi that were shared by the director or upon the director’s request by the faculty themselves. The following sections present results obtained from analyses of the course titles, course description, and syllabi.

Research results

Course title analysis

Out of this initial list of 119 courses, a total of 46 had the “communication” in the title. As shown in Table 1, in addition to communication, other words frequently occurring in the titles were as follows: marketing, media, public relations, data visualization, storytelling, writing, media, narrative, and advocacy. The remaining course titles referred to several nuanced aspects of communication such as policy messaging or fundamentals of podcasts. A complete list of course titles is provided in Appendix A.

Table 1.

Course title analysis.

	Communication related keyword in course title	Frequency
1	Communication	46
2	Marketing	12
3	Writing	10
4	Media	10
5	Data (visualization, etc.)	7
6	Storytelling	5
7	Advocacy	5
8	Public relations	2
9	Narrative	2
10	Miscellaneous	20
—	Total	119

The subset of 46 courses with communication in their titles were analyzed to determine the skills emphasized in these courses. These courses emphasized the importance of risk, strategic, organizational, managerial, administrative, executive, interpersonal, professional, and public communication. They also focused on leadership communication, inter-cultural, and cross-cultural communication, and communication for inclusive action. Domain specific communication for health professions, the environment, science, crisis management, political and campaign management, public administration, and mass communication were also found. The courses with Marketing in the title focused primarily on strategies for nonprofit organizations, municipal branding, and civic engagement. Courses with writing in the title included domains such as policy, international affairs, war and humanitarian disasters as well as general professional writing skills. Storytelling courses were primarily offered by Columbia University, and they focused on visual, multimedia, and crowdsourced storytelling. Storytelling for creating social impact was also offered. Five out of the seven courses with data in the title focused on data visualization emphasizing the importance of communicating what emerges from data in a visual manner. The miscellaneous category of courses focused on skills essential for communication such as proficiency in English, digital activism, fundamentals of podcast interviews etc.

The 119 courses were offered by 74 different institutions. Out of those, 43 institutions or approximately 58% are NASPAA accredited institutions; 31 were non-accredited. Figure 1 provides the spread of 71 institutions across the United States; the other three are international.

Figure 1.

Geographic spread of programs with communication courses.

As shown in Figure 1, the highest concentration of communications courses was in New York and California. There are 9 programs in New York and 7 in California that offer graduate students access to communication related courses. Columbia University’s School of International and Public Affairs is an outlier given that it has 42 course offerings as part of its Technology, Media, and Communications specialization. As indicated on the program’s website, the goal “is to help students develop strong abilities in video, data visualization, reporting/research, and writing, as well as an understanding of the global media and digital technology. We offer courses on the role of internet governance, digital activism, e-government, and digital diplomacy.” This program ran the gamut of courses related to communication in today’s world. Other programs focused on specific aspects of communication important to the public administration and public affairs domain.

Figure 2 shows the distribution of core versus elective offerings. Out of 119 courses, 89 were available as core offerings; 30 were available as electives. The elective courses were provided by communication, business, health sciences, English, and law programs. Marketing and leadership programs within business schools provided the courses relevant to this paper.

Figure 2.

Number of core and elective offerings.

A careful analysis of course titles revealed how the courses mapped on to the five NASPAA competency domains. Table 2

Table 2.

Communication courses corresponding to NASPAA competency domains.

Competency domains	Examples of actual course titles
1) To lead and manage in the public interest	Crisis communication management Leadership communications Leadership and communication skills development seminar
2) To participate in, and contribute to, the policy process	Law, media, and public policy Writing and rhetoric for policy audiences Messaging policy in the digital age
3) To analyze, synthesize, think critically, solve problems, and make evidence informed decisions in a complex and dynamic environment	Community involvement in decision-making Policy solutions for online mis/Disinformation Internet governance, human rights, and inclusive policy-making
4) To articulate, apply, and advance a public service perspective	Public health communication Public engagement in science Public communication of science and technology
5) To communicate and interact productively and in culturally responsive ways with a diverse and changing workforce and society at large	Effective communications for inclusive action Cross-cultural communications in the public sector Inter-cultural communication

Provides the five competencies in the first column and the three course titles that relate to each competency in the second column. NASPAA requires programs to adopt five distinct competencies derived from its mission and values oriented on public service. Programs must also emphasize each competency in accordance with its mission. The section below briefly discusses some examples of the competencies based on the NASPAA Self-Study Instructions from 2019.

Competency 1 represents the ability to lead and manage people and organizations in a complex, dynamic environment. Leadership in a public or nonprofit organization involves team building, collaboration, and risk management for organizational mission and public interest. Competency 2 demonstrates the ability to understand a public policy issue and establish the various stages of the policy-making process. More importantly, the policy process needs to be inclusive and build consensus among the various stakeholders such as citizens, interest groups, media, etc. Competency 3 requires the application of critical thinking and analysis to developing solutions for public problems, with the use of data and evidence for strategic decision-making. Competency 4 emphasizes the recognition of public service values in situations involving ethical dilemmas, fiscal responsibility, social equity, fairness, and public interest. Competency 5 is the most closely related to communication. It articulates the many dimensions of communicating and interacting with a changing society and workforce. This competency highlights communication related to writing, presentations, interpersonal skills, as well as facilitation skills, teamwork, and recognizing cultural diversity.

Many of the courses captured here such as crisis communication management and leadership communications align with the competency domain of leading and managing in the public interest. Numerous courses focused on the many facets of communicating for the policy process. The evidence informed decision-making aspect of the third competency domain is covered in courses examining online mis/disinformation. Courses such as public health communication and public engagement in science call upon the administrator’s ability to create public value out of scientific findings. Health information and findings related to science and technology remain unused or underused if they are not articulated, applied, and advanced for the betterment of the public. The fifth competency domain underscores the importance of communicating and interacting in culturally responsive ways. It is captured in courses on inter-cultural communication, effective communication for inclusive action, and cross-cultural communication in the public sector.

Discussion of results

Course description analysis

The course descriptions were first put through a free online text analysis tool (seoscout.com/tools/keyword-analyzer) to explore which two or three words occurred most frequently. Figure 3 is a word cloud that visualizes the most frequently occurring pairs of words. A total of 28 pairs of words occurred more than four times in all the course descriptions. The word pairs of strategic communication, strategic planning, and public relations occurred 17, 16, and 10 times, respectively. Table 3 shows the top five most frequently occurring ones.

Figure 3.

Most frequently occurring pairs of words in course descriptions.

Table 3.

Top 5 Two-word sequences.

Word pairs	Frequency
1.Strategic communication	17
2.Public relations	10
3.Strategic planning	16
4.Human rights	8
5.Case studies	7

Word pairs also included human rights, case studies, digital media, writing speaking, social enterprises, social impact, advocacy campaigns, social media, and communication management. As can be gleaned from the word cloud, other important co-occurring pairs were reputation management, research writing and communication strategies. This exercise revealed the current emphasis on some overarching communication skills such as strategic communication, communication management, and social media/public relations skills.

Figure 4 shows the most frequently occurring sequence of three words in the course descriptions. A set of 17 three-word sequences occurred more than twice in the course descriptions. Some of these three-word sequences relate to generic communication and research skills such as blogging, writing, and reporting. Others relate to communication skills in specific areas such as crisis communication management, public policy interventions, social impact campaigns, and public/nonprofit performance. These word frequency analyses reveal the recurring patterns across syllabi. They also show the emphasis on wide-ranging communication skills that have broad applicability as well as specific skills such as crisis communication. Table 4 below shows the most frequently occurring three-word sequences.

Figure 4.

Most frequently occurring three-word sequences.

Table 4.

Frequently occurring three-word sequences.

Three-word sequences	Frequency
Social impact campaigns	4
Policy writing tools	4
Public intervention tools	4
Social media campaign	2
Practical research writing	2
Research writing skills	2
Journalistic intervention tools	2
Public policy interventions	2
Public policy debates	2
Op-eds review	2
Essays blogs reports	2
Blog report write	2
Crisis communication management	2
Public nonprofit performance	2
Data collection analysis	2
Effective public communication	2

Some courses focused on the reporting of performance measurements to stakeholders and community members. This is an important step in the performance measurement and management process, and MPA and MPP students need to understand the value of communicating them to targeted groups. This process also involves the use of data visualization for various audiences, particularly via digital channels. Students need to know the statistical measures to use with specific types of data or information in order to provide compelling visuals.

Equally important is writing, a key, public administration function. Our study found specific courses dedicated to writing letters, reports, memos, policy requests, cover letters, resumes, proposals, etc. Students were also expected to understand and interpret newspaper articles, op-eds, white papers, and other forms of media. Ultimately, they will be expected to contribute to press releases which are vital links with the public during crises or emergencies. One course focused on writing as a democratic process that must document controversial issues from the perspectives of many stakeholders. The written communication component emphasizes critical thinking.

Along with external communication, internal messaging is an important aspect of public administration. It involves administrative, managerial, and organizational communication. The focus of these courses is to distinguish between formal and informal communications. They concentrate on communicating across the organizational hierarchy and structure. Such skills are also helpful for career advancement for MPA and MPP students. Courses also focus on interpersonal communication, with specific emphasis on tackling workplace issues such as emotional labor, supervisor/employee relationships, and workplace bullying.

The goal, of course, is effective communication which is necessary in our increasingly diverse and multi-cultural settings. Inter-cultural awareness can be introduced through class discussions and simulations. Such initiatives will help build trust among the stakeholders and build better relations and form coalitions that can enable smoother transmissions of essential information during times of crisis.

Strategic communication was prevalent in many course offerings, either as the focus or as a sub-topic. These courses helped students to develop strategic campaigns and creative messaging to audiences, and improve public relations via better public conversations.

A significant number of courses focused on nonprofit marketing and public relations. Nonprofits are mission and vision oriented. They must engage with their stakeholders and maintain good public relations with the communities they serve. Nonprofits organizations are also increasingly using social media to reach out to their clients and donors. This increased in 2020. Nonprofits in the arts needed a considerable amount of marketing to improve their visibility in the community. Nonprofits as well as public organizations are also becoming more focused on branding.

Finally, digital communication and media relations are becoming more important. Specific courses equip students with newswriting and reporting techniques to cover public news on digital, print, and broadcast platforms. This also involves an in-depth understanding of the administrative structure and functions of the state government.

On a related note, some courses focus on the images and perceptions of public administrators and public organizations. Others examine the image of the public administrator in media and on television. Such courses help students to understand the various stereotypes of bureaucrats and government, and reflect upon their own individual perspectives.

Syllabi analysis

The 16 syllabi obtained through email requests to program directors and faculty were analyzed to determine the main objectives of these courses and the nature of assignments given to students.

Course objectives

The course objectives analysis indicates that the most common communication skills showcased are oral, written, and visual communication competencies. The most recurring objectives were to review, discuss, focus, create, develop, enhance, and hone students’ skills. This implies, in many cases, students probably gained certain skills that were new to them. More of these courses were taught by males (55%) than females (35%). 55% of the professors had doctorates, one was a former U.S. senator, and many were associate professors. Furthermore, the courses aimed to develop the highly valued communication skills needed to succeed in the public sector.

Nature of assignments

The 16 syllabi were also analyzed to examine the types of assignments meant to develop communication skills. First, a list of all the assignments was made. Then, generic assignments such as quizzes, discussion board posts, mid-term and final exams were deleted from the list. The remaining assignments were analyzed, and each was categorized based on the skill mentioned. As shown in Figure 5, the assignments could be categorized into three broad groups that emphasized oral, written, and visual communication. Oral communication assignments focused on speaking to provide information, persuasive speech and policy advocacy speech. Students were also asked to analyze famous public speeches to understand structure and content. Written communication assignments focused on various aspects of communication such as persuasive grant writing, engaging stories, and organizational storytelling. Visual communication assignments provided hands-on experience in creating infographics, print and video ads, and general visual presentation skills. In addition to emphasizing oral, written, and visual communication skills, the syllabi provided evidence of emphasis on strategic communication through analysis of a person’s communication techniques or an organization’s marketing strategy.

Figure 5.

Type of assignments.

Conclusion and recommendations

This paper contributes to the fields of public administration, public communication, and public relations. It examines the significance of public communication in public administration by exploring how these topics are being taught to MPA and MPP students at U.S. universities. This research builds upon the optimism exhibited by Lee in his 2009 article titled “The return of public relations to the public administration curriculum?” As he noted, scholars and practitioners are awakening to the promise of public relations and public communications as management functions. This coincides with the rediscovery of public communications’ significance, as indicated by its increasing coverage in pedagogy journals and publications (Lee, 2009).

This research primarily analyzed three types of content related to communication pedagogy in MPA and MPP programs – course titles, course descriptions, and course syllabi. Our search identified 119 courses focused on topics related to communication, which accounts for about a fifth of all public affairs programs. Communication was the most frequently occurring title, followed by marketing, writing, and media. The programs also offered courses on storytelling, advocacy, and public relations. Perhaps the most significant takeaway from this research is that communication is well-integrated with key public administration topics. The sampled courses emphasized strategic, organizational, managerial, administrative, executive, interpersonal, professional, and public communication.

Courses also focused on leadership communication, inter-cultural and cross-cultural communications, and communication for inclusive action. A majority of the courses were offered by programs as part of their core curriculum, which is an indication of the growing recognition of the topic by scholars, instructors, and practitioners. Another important finding was that many of the courses also aligned with NASPAA’s core competencies.

This is a promising indication of how programs are embracing communication pedagogy from multiple forms of writing, oral, and visual communications. Although the results expanded on the positive momentum from Lee’s 2009 study, there is much scope for improvement. The number of offerings is rising and they are becoming standardized in the public affairs curriculum. Many departments and colleges may need guidance and suggestions on developing such courses, and this paper seeks to address these needs by highlighting the trends and opportunities in the field. Additionally, the paper maps the communication courses across the five NASPAA competencies, which would further motivate programs to recognize how integrating communication into their curriculum can further orient their mission and values towards public service and interest.

At a very basic level, every PA/PP graduate student should take a course in professional communication either as an elective or a core class given the complex informational environment they are likely to contend with as professionals in the public sector. This study shows there are multi-dimensional aspects to communication. Students should be oriented towards the theoretical, technical, practical dimensions of communication. Although NASPAA competencies 4 and 5 clearly emphasize communication, the effective use of technological tools may be necessary in this informationally complex world. In terms of the breadth of courses offered, Columbia University’s SIPA is an outlier. It provides instruction on every aspect of communication imaginable. Other programs can take the initial steps towards strengthening competencies 4 and 5. The first would be to collaborate with communication programs on their campuses to expand potential offerings of electives. Another would be to invite the communication directors from nearby cities and public organizations to share their experiences in PA/PP class rooms. Graduate students should made aware of the various public information/communication scenarios they are likely to encounter. This could also include shadowing practitioners to understand the multiple communication modalities and strategies they use on a daily, weekly, and monthly basis. Real time assessments of different communication documents or other resources for effective communication would be useful.

This paper also hopes to revive interest in the two questions raised by Heise (1985). Can public communication become an accepted career in public administration? And, will public administration programs finally be ready to provide the essential communications skills to their students? The inclusion of communication pedagogy in MPA and MPP programs can strengthen the credibility of the practice of the public communication and public relation initiatives of government.

The growth of communication courses in public affairs curriculum suggest there has been a concerted effort to train their students for job opportunities related to communication. One such example is the increasing role and prevalence of Public Information Officers (PIOs) and related positions such as Public Engagement Officer, Citizen Participation Officer, etc. As information and misinformation crowd social media and online platforms, relevant, reliable information is needed to promote dialogue and discussion. PIOs can help coordinate communication across various government sources. Cities are also hiring Chief Storytellers to enhance their communication and interaction with their residents and stakeholders via stories and narratives. Public administrator as a storyteller should be able to connect with multiple stakeholders and weave in their diverse perspectives in crafting a coherent story, and this needs to begin in the graduate classrooms through simulations and case studies. MPA and MPP programs need to train their students with appropriate communication skills to prepare them for such positions and functions. However, such skills are not just necessary for those interested in specific communication positions. Programs need to impart communication skills to all students. Public administrators are increasingly finding themselves in situations where they must interact directly with the citizens and stakeholders to implement public policy initiatives and to obtain relevant feedback.

Additionally, cities are also adopting place branding and marketing strategies to promote themselves and attract residents, tourists, and also investments for economic development. More importantly, the process of branding a city can be a participative and inclusive process, and residents can help define their city and its brand (Manoharan and Wu, 2021). Although few courses in the study seem to provide the above-mentioned skills, there is a great potential and need for such skills and competencies for future public administrators and policy analysts.

Public administrators need to realize the importance of better relations with the media and television channels. This in turn can create a positive environment for the transmission of vital information to the public. During crises or emergencies, strategic communications and outreach are truly needed as well as targeted messaging via multiple channels. Along with external messaging, internal communication within public and nonprofit organizations remains vital. Leaders and managers can establish better interpersonal relationships through effective communication.

There are several opportunities for MPA and MPP programs to offer courses related to communication that integrate the above discussed skills and competencies. The introduction of these courses need not cause a major change to the program curricula and in some cases, can be integrated with existing course or concentrations. Courses on e-government need to focus on the use of websites and social media for communication and public feedback on government projects; courses on performance measurement can include a section on public performance reporting; and citizen participation courses can emphasize the value of communication and public engagement to their students. The departments can offer certificate courses in communications, and can collaborate with professional organizations such as ICMA, ASPA, NACO, etc., in developing the relevant courses and concepts. Such efforts to mainstream communication in public affairs curricula can be augmented by specific steps from conferences, journals, and professional organizations such as special issues, symposiums, webinars, and perhaps a new section on communications.

Government communication is important for a myriad of reasons. The COVID-19 pandemic has underscored the importance of effective communication even further. Governments utilized various communication tools to disseminate vital information, create awareness among the public, and nudge behavioral changes for safer and healthier living. The goal was to reach wider sections of the community, including those not previously using those technology initiatives. The public was beset by rapidly spreading misinformation, particularly on social media platforms. In times of uncertainty, the public yearns for coherent communication from public institutions that can also regain their trust.

Government agencies at all levels have embraced online participation and engagement by seamlessly switching to online city council meetings and utilizing social media platforms. Many such technologies will continue to function in varied forms in future. Such changes, along with the increasing digitalization of society over the past two decades, make it imperative for public administrators to be trained to communicate effectively.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Aroon P Manoharan

Appendix

List of Course Titles

1	21st-century communication and leadership
2	Administrative communication
3	Advanced communication and the environment
4	Advanced multimedia storytelling workshop
5	Advanced public affairs reporting
6	Applied communications in health professions
7	City marketing and brand image planning
8	Civic innovation and building a people-centered government
9	Communication and the environment
10	Communication campaign management
11	Communication campaigns and public advocacy
12	Communication for public administrators
13	Communication for the public manager
14	Communications for corporations and nonprofits
15	Communications for public administrators
16	Communications strategies for effective leadership
17	Community involvement in decision-making
18	Crisis communication management
19	Cross-cultural communications in the public sector
20	Crowdsourced storytelling for policy makers, journalists, and NGOs
21	Data driven approaches for campaigns and advocacy
22	Data management and visualization with R
23	Data visualization
24	Data visualization
25	Data visualization
26	Digital activism
27	Dynamics of cyber power and conflict
28	Effective communications for inclusive action
29	Effective communications for public administrators
30	Effective communications in public administration
31	English for public administration
32	Executive communication skills
33	Fundamentals of management and marketing
34	Fundamentals of podcast interviews
35	Global media: Innovation and economic development
36	Health communication
37	Human rights skills and advocacy
38	Images of pub administration
39	Inter-cultural communication
40	International media business
41	Internet business models and US policy: How we got to here
42	Internet governance, human rights, and inclusive policy-making (in the digital age)
43	Interpersonal communication
44	Interpersonal communications within organizations
45	Introduction to infographics and data visualization
46	Law, media and public policy
47	Leadership and communication skills development seminar
48	Leadership and community engagement
49	Leadership communications
50	Management, project management, and negotiations: Changes in public communication
51	Managerial communication
52	Managerial communications in PA
53	Marketing and community engagement
54	Marketing for nonprofit
55	Marketing for nonprofit organizations
56	Marketing for public service organizations
57	Marketing for the nonprofit sector
58	Mass communications policy
59	Mass mediated American and global politics
60	Media and information management
61	Media campaigning and social change
62	Media relations
63	Messaging policy in the digital age
64	Narrative journalism across the platforms
65	New media in development communication
66	News and disinformation: Propaganda, Russia and the geopolitics of information
67	Oral communication skills
68	Organizational communication
69	Policies and practices in digital development
70	Policy solutions for online mis/Disinformation
71	Policy writing
72	Political advocacy and social entrepreneurship
73	Political communication
74	Politics of history and reconciliation
75	Problematic workplace communication
76	Professional communication
77	Professional communications
78	Public administration and film
79	Public administration through film and television
80	Public communication
81	Public communication
82	Public communication of science and Technology
83	Public communications
84	Public engagement in science
85	Public health communication
86	Public opinion and social processes
87	Public relations and marketing for nonprofit organizations
88	Public relations management
89	Public sector communications
90	Public speaking: Contexts, Techniques, and analysis
91	Relationship between government and media
92	Reporting and writing on war and humanitarian disasters
93	Resource development and strategic communications
94	Risk communication
95	Seminar in marketing
96	Social marketing in the public sector
97	Storytelling and The art of creating social impact campaigns
98	Storytelling for nonprofits
99	Strategic communication
100	Strategic communications
101	Strategic marketing for public and private not-for-profit organizations
102	Strategic planning and marketing
103	Strategy, collaboration, and communication
104	Tech and tactics for innovative policy-making
105	Tech policy in the developing world: Data governance
106	Technology for international crisis response and good governance
107	Technology solutions for development and social change
108	Technology, national security, and the citizen
109	The Panama papers
110	Tools for advocacy
111	Visual storytelling
112	Writing about war: Seeking narratives in conflict
113	Writing and delivering speeches for politics, private sector, and nonprofits
114	Writing and reporting on international affairs
115	Writing and rhetoric for policy audiences
116	Writing and speaking for professionals
117	Writing for public administrators
118	Writing on policy
119	Writing on policy

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