A Systematic Review of School Personnel’s Involvement in Function-Based Intervention for Students With Extensive Support Needs

Abstract

Although function-based interventions (FBIs) are effective for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities, less is known about FBIs for students with extensive support needs (ESN) and school personnel involvement in FBI development and implementation. As such, we conducted a systematic literature review of 14 single-case research studies involving FBI implementation in K-12 U.S. school settings to address challenging behavior among 18 students with ESN. To identify relevant peer-reviewed articles, dissertations, and theses published between 2006 and March 2025, we searched 10 online databases, reference lists of 10 published reviews, and 19 peer-reviewed journals. Descriptive analyses revealed school personnel involvement varied widely, with school personnel often assuming FBI implementer roles and researchers primarily leading functional behavior assessments. Findings may be limited due to the small number of studies and eligible students with ESN included in the analyses and the limited descriptions of student and study characteristics.

Keywords

extensive support needs literature review functional behavior assessment function-based intervention school personnel

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Bloom

S. E.

Lambert

J. M.

Dayton

Samaha

A. L.

(2013). Teacher-conducted trial-based functional analyses as the basis for intervention. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(1), 208–218. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.21

Brock

M. E.

Huber

H. B.

Carter

E. W.

Juarez

A. P.

Warren

Z. E.

(2014). Statewide assessment of professional development needs related to educating students with autism spectrum disorder. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 29(2), 67–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357614522290

*Brock

M. E.

Seaman

R. L.

Downing

(2017). Promoting learning for a student with a severe disability through paraprofessional training. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 42(4), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796917729682

Carpenter

M. E.

Snodgrass

M. R.

Walker

V. L.

Pinczynski

Harris

. (2026). Participation of students with IDD in social validity assessment of function-based interventions in school settings: A prevalence review. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007251389667

Carpenter

M. E.

Walker

V. L.

Masud

A. B.

Johnson

H. N.

(2024). Implementing function-based behavior intervention plans in general education settings for students with extensive support needs. TEACHING Exceptional Children. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00400599241231214

Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. (n.d.). Function-based support throughout the continuum: New guidance from the U.S. Department of Education. Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. https://www.pbis.org/current/function-based-support-throughout-the-continuum

Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. (2022). Tier 3 comprehensive functional behavior assessment (FBA) guide. University of Oregon. https://www.pbis.org/resource/tier-3-comprehensive-functional-behavior-assessment-fba-guide

Chezan

L. C.

Bauer

A. M.

McCammon

M. N.

Drasgow

(2024). Functional communication training in schools: A systematic analysis of the evidence for ecological validity. Behavior Modification, 48(5–6), 502–536. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455241264816

*Chung

Y.-C.

Cannella-Malone

H. I.

(2010). The effects of presession manipulations on automatically maintained challenging behavior and task responding. Behavior Modification, 34(6), 479–502. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445510378380

10.

Collins

L. W.

Zirkel

P. A.

(2017). Functional behavior assessments and behavior intervention plans: Legal requirements and professional recommendations. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 19(3), 180–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300716682201

11.

Council for Exceptional Children. (2020). Initial practice-based professional preparation standards for special educators. https://exceptionalchildren.org/sites/default/files/2021-03/K12%20Initial%20Standards%20and%20Components.pdf

12.

Courson

S. S.

Edwards-Bowyer

Evanovich

(2025). Better together: Using multidisciplinary teams for systematic functional behavior assessment and intervention planning for students with extensive behavioral support needs. Beyond Behavior. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/107429562513367

13.

Crone

Horner

(2003). Building positive behavior support systems in schools. Guilford Press.

14.

*Davis

D. H.

Fredrick

L. D.

Alberto

P. A.

Gama

(2012). Functional communication training without extinction using concurrent schedules of differing magnitudes of reinforcement in classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(3), 162–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300711429597

15.

Flower

McKenna

J. W.

Haring

C. D.

(2017). Behavior and classroom management: Are teacher preparation programs really preparing our teachers? Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 61(2), 163–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988x.2016.1231109

16.

Folkerts

Meadan

(2024). Preparation of pre-service special education teachers on conducting functional behavioral assessments: A pilot study. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 69(3), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988x.2024.2431975

17.

Folkerts

Meadan

(2025). Preparation of pre-service special education teachers on conducting functional behavioral assessments: A pilot study. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 69(3), 245–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/1045988X.2024.2431975

18.

*Fritz

J. N.

Iwata

B. A.

Hammond

J. L.

Bloom

S. E.

(2013). Experimental analysis of precursors to severe problem behavior. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 46(1), 101–129. https://doi.org/10.1002/jaba.27

19.

Gage

N. A.

Cook

B. G.

Reichow

(2017). Publication bias in special education meta-analyses. Exceptional Children, 83(4), 428–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917691016

20.

Giangreco

M. F.

(2019). How can a student with severe disabilities be in a fifth-grade class when he can’t do fifth-grade level work? Misapplying the least restrictive environment. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 45(1), 23–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796919892733

21.

Giangreco

M. F.

Broer

S. M.

(2005). Questionable utilization of paraprofessionals in inclusive schools. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 20(1), 10–26. https://doi.org/10.1177/10883576050200010201

22.

Giangreco

M. F.

Pennington

R. C.

Walker

V. L.

(2023). Conceptualizing and utilizing Board Certified Behavior Analysts as related services providers in inclusion-oriented schools. Remedial and Special Education, 44(1), 73–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325211063610

23.

Goh

A. E.

Bambara

L. M.

(2012). Individualized positive behavior support in school settings. Remedial and Special Education, 33(5), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932510383990

24.

Hirsch

S. E.

Lewis

T. J.

Griffith

C. A.

Carlson

Brown

Katsiyannis

(2023). An analysis of selected aspects of functional behavioral assessments and behavior intervention plans. The Journal of Special Education, 57(3), 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669221146168

25.

Horner

(2014, August 31). The importance of contextual fit when implementing evidence-based interventions [Issue brief]. Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation. https://aspe.hhs.gov/reports/importance-contextual-fit-when-implementing-evidence-based-interventions

26.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004).

27.

Janney

Snell

M. E.

(2008). Teacher’s guides to inclusive practices: Behavioral support (2nd ed.). Paul H. Brookes.

28.

Jeong

Copeland

S. R.

(2020). Comparing functional behavior assessment-based interventions and non-functional behavior assessment-based interventions: A systematic review of outcomes and methodological quality of studies. Journal of Behavioral Education, 29(1), 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-019-09355-4

29.

*Kern

Starosta

Adelman

B. E.

(2006). Reducing pica by teaching children to exchange inedible items for edibles. Behavior Modification, 30(2), 135–158. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445505283414

30.

Kleinert

Towles-Reeves

Quenemoen

Thurlow

Fluegge

Weseman

Kerbel

(2015). Where students with the most significant cognitive disabilities are taught. Exceptional Children, 81(3), 312–328. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914563697

31.

Kurth

J. A.

Lockman Turner

Gerasimova

Hicks

T. A.

Zagona

Lansey

Mansouri

M. C.

Jameson

J. M.

Loyless

(2025). Quality of IEPS for students with complex support needs: Is there alignment across IEP components? Exceptionality, 33(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2024.2389079

32.

Kurth

J. A.

Ruppar

A. L.

Toews

S. G.

McCabe

K. M.

McQueston

J. A.

Johnston

(2019). Considerations in placement decisions for students with extensive support needs: An analysis of LRE statements. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 44(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796918825479

33.

*Langdon

N. A.

Carr

E. G.

Owen-DeSchryver

J. S.

(2008). Functional analysis of precursors for serious problem behavior and related intervention. Behavior Modification, 32(6), 804–827. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445508317943

34.

Ledford

J. R.

Lambert

J. M.

Pustejovsky

J. E.

Zimmerman

K. N.

Hollins

Barton

E. E.

(2022). Single-case-design research in special education: NEXT-generation guidelines and considerations. Exceptional Children, 89(4), 379–396. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029221137656

35.

Lloyd

B. P.

Weaver

E. S.

Staubitz

J. L.

(2015). A review of functional analysis methods conducted in public school classroom settings. Journal of Behavioral Education, 25(3), 324–356. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-015-9243-y

36.

Lory

Gregori

Huff

Lee

Rendon

(2024). Interventions for challenging behavior of autistic students in general education settings: A systematic literature review. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2024.102385

37.

Lory

Mason

R. A.

Davis

J. L.

Wang

Kim

S. Y.

Gregori

David

(2020). A meta-analysis of challenging behavior interventions for students with developmental disabilities in inclusive school settings. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(4), 1221–1237. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04329-x

38.

Mansouri

M. C.

Kurth

J. A.

Lockman Turner

Zimmerman

K. N.

Frick

T. A.

(2022). Comparison of academic and social outcomes of students with extensive support needs across placements. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 47(2), 111–129. https://doi.org/10.1177/15407969221101792

39.

Marquis

J. G.

Horner

R. H.

Carr

E. G.

Turnbull

A. P.

Thompson

Behrens

G. A.

Magito-McLaughlin

McAtee

M. L.

Smith

C. E.

Anderson Ryan

(2000). A meta-analysis of positive behavior support . In Snell

M. E.

Brown

(Eds.), Contemporary special education research: Syntheses of the knowledge base on critical instructional issues (pp. 137–178). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

40.

Martens

B. K.

Witt

J. C.

Elliot

S. N.

Darveaux

(1985). Teacher judgements concerning the acceptability of school based interventions. Professional Psychology, 16, 191–198.

41.

Masud

A. B.

Walker

V. L.

Carpenter

M. E.

Anderson

(2022). Functional communication training in inclusive school settings for students with intellectual and developmental disabilities: A literature review. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 25(4), 239–252. https://doi.org/10.1177/10983007221126530

42.

Monzalve

Horner

R. H.

(2020). The impact of the contextual fit enhancement protocol on behavior support plan fidelity and student behavior. Behavioral Disorders, 46(4), 267–278. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742920953497

43.

*Mueller

M. M.

Nkosi

(2007). State of the science in the assessment and management of severe behavior problems in school settings: Behavior analytic consultation to schools. International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy, 3(2), 176–202. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100798

44.

*Muharib

Voggt

A. P.

Wood

C. L.

Pennington

R. C.

Lang

(2021). Further evaluation of a multiple schedule thinning procedure following functional communication training in a school setting. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 5(2), 204–217. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-021-00196-9

45.

Nesselrode

Falcomata

T. S.

Hills

Erhard

(2022). Functional analysis in public school settings: A systematic review of the literature. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 15(3), 958–970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-022-00679-8

46.

*Quigley

Dowdy

Trucksess

Finlay

(2021). An investigation of functional communication training and schedule thinning using a multiple schedule on elopement to access stereotypy. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 51(9), 3224–3234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04788-7

47.

Samudre

M. D.

Ackerman

K. B.

Allday

R. A.

(2019). A systematic review of general educator training with functional behavior assessments. Journal of Disability Policy Studies, 31(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207319869938

48.

*Schmidt

J. D.

Drasgow

Halle

J. W.

Martin

C. A.

Bliss

S. A.

(2014). Discrete-trial functional analysis and functional communication training with three individuals with autism and severe problem behavior. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 16(1), 44–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300712470519

49.

*Schmidt

J. D.

Luiselli

J. K.

Rue

Whalley

(2013). Graduated exposure and positive reinforcement to overcome setting and activity avoidance in an adolescent with autism. Behavior Modification, 37(1), 128–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445512456547

50.

Scott

T. M.

McIntyre

Liaupsin

Nelson

C. M.

Conroy

(2004). An examination of functional behavior assessment in public school settings: Collaborative teams, experts, and methodology. Behavioral Disorders, 29(4), 384–395. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290402900406

51.

*Shaw

Simms

(2009). Reducing attention-maintained behavior through the use of positive punishment, differential reinforcement of low rates, and response marking. Behavioral Interventions, 24(4), 249–263. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.287

52.

Shogren

K. A.

Shaw

L. A.

Wehmeyer

M. L.

Thompson

J. R.

Lang

K. M.

Tassé

M. J.

Schalock

R. L.

(2017). The support needs of children with intellectual disability and autism: Implications for supports planning and subgroup classification. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 47(3), 865–877. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2995-y

53.

Simó-Pinatella

Mumbardó-Adam

Alomar-Kurz

Sugai

Simonsen

(2019). Prevalence of challenging behaviors exhibited by children with disabilities: Mapping the literature. Journal of Behavioral Education, 28(3), 323–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-019-09326-9

54.

Snell

M. E.

Brady

McLean

Ogletree

B. T.

Siegel

Sylvester

Mineo

Paul

Romski

M. A.

Sevcik

(2010). Twenty years of communication intervention research with individuals who have severe intellectual and developmental disabilities. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 115(5), 364–380. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-115-5.364

55.

*Snyder

S. K.

Griffin

M. L.

Ayres

K. M.

(2024). Assessment and treatment of multiply maintained self injury for a visually impaired elementary student with autism. Behavioral Interventions, 39(3), Article e2011. https://doi.org/10.1002/bin.2011

56.

*Stevenson

B. S.

Wood

C. L.

Iannello

A. C.

(2019). Effects of function-based crisis intervention on the severe challenging behavior of students with autism. Education and Treatment of Children, 42(3), 321–343. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2019.0015

57.

Taub

D. A.

McCord

J. A.

Ryndak

D. L.

(2017). Opportunities to learn for students with extensive support needs: A context of research-supported practices for all in general education classes. The Journal of Special Education, 51(3), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466917696263

58.

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services [OSERS], & Office of Elementary and Secondary Education [OESE]. (2024, November). Using functional behavioral assessments to create supportive learning environments. https://sites.ed.gov/idea/files/Functional-Behavioral-Assessments-11-19-2024.pdf

59.

Walker

V. L.

Carpenter

M. E.

Reilly

A. M.

Masud

A. B.

Nichols

M. E.

Harris

. (2025). Intervention research on challenging behavior in inclusive school settings for students with extensive support needs: A systematic review. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/15407969251392218

60.

Walker

V. L.

Chung

Bonnet

L. K.

(2018). Function-based intervention in inclusive school settings: A meta-analysis. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 20(6), 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300717718350

61.

Walker

V. L.

Kurth

J. A.

Carpenter

M. E.

Tapp

Clausen

Lockman Turner

(2021). Paraeducator-delivered interventions for students with extensive support needs in inclusive school settings: A systematic review. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 46(4), 278–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/15407969211055127

62.

Walker

V. L.

Loman

S. L.

Hara

Park

K. L.

Strickland-Cohen

M. K.

(2018). Examining the inclusion of students with severe disabilities in school-wide positive behavioral interventions and supports. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 43(4), 223–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796918779370

63.

Westling

D. L.

Trader

B. R.

Smith

C. A.

Marshall

D. S.

(2010). Use of restraints, seclusion, and aversive procedures on students with disabilities. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 35(3–4), 116–127. https://doi.org/10.2511/rpsd.35.3-4.116

64.

Wiggs

N. B.

Reddy

L. A.

Bronstein

Glover

T. A.

Dudek

C. M.

Alperin

(2021). A mixed-method study of paraprofessional roles, professional development, and needs for training in elementary schools. Psychology in the Schools, 58(11), 2238–2254. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22589

65.

Wolf

M. M.

(1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11(2), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-203

66.

Zagona

A. L.

Kurth

J. A.

Lockman Turner

Pace

Shogren

Lansey

Jameson

Burnette

Mansouri

Hicks

Gerasimova

(2022). Ecobehavioral analysis of the experiences of students with complex support needs in different classroom types. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 47(4), 209–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/15407969221126496

67.

Zagona

A. L.

Kurth

J. A.

MacFarland

S. Z.

(2017). Teachers’ views of their preparation for inclusive education and collaboration. Teacher Education and Special Education, 40(3), 163–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406417692969

68.

Zagona

A. L.

Kurth

J. A.

Walker

V. L.

Ruppar

Loman

Bubash

(2024). A mixed-methods quality analysis of behavior intervention plans for students with extensive support needs. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 49(4), 262–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/15407969241291485

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.01 MB