Twenty-eight hearing, nonverbal, moderately to profoundly retarded children were successfully taught a nonvocal symbol system based on Premack's work in which plastic shapes represent words. Twenty-five profoundly retarded children learned an average of 10 symbols within six months. Slow learners (13 out of 25) generated one and two-word sentences. Three additional children with higher mental ages constructed more complex nine-symbol sentences, learning an average of 50 symbols. A matched control group was given equal time in one-to-one vocal interaction with analogous materials. Additional findings on pre-post testing were: (1) no significant differences in mental age, IQ, or vocalization between groups; (2) significant increase in attention span for the trained group and a significant decrease for controls; and (3) significant increase in receptive language and cooper- ation for slow learners, in contrast to controls. Conclusion: The symbol system is useful for nonvocal retardates where alternate communication models are not feasible.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Baltaxe, C. , & Simmons, J. W.Language in childhood psychosis: A reviewJournal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 1975, 40-40.
2.
Bellugi, U.Studies in sign language. American Annals of the Deaf, 1972, 68-84.
3.
Berry, M. F. , & Eisenson, J.Speech disorders: Principles andpractices of theory. Engle-wood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1956.
4.
Blair, N., & Baldwin, A. A comparison of the effects of symbol versus speech training on the behavior of autistic children. Unpublished manuscript, 1975.
5.
Bliss System: Year-End Report and Manual;Ontario Crippled Children's Centre, Toronto, Canada, 1973.
6.
Bricker, W.A. , & Bricker, D. D.A program of language training for the severely handicapped child. Exceptional Children, 1970, 37, 101-112.
7.
Bricker, W. A. , & Bricker, D. D.An early language training strategy. In R. L. Schiefelbusch & L. L. Lloyd (Eds.), Language perspectives: Acquisition, retardation, and in tervention. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1974.
8.
Brown, R.A first language: The early stages. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974.
9.
Carrier, J. K.Nonspeech noun usage training with severely and profoundly retarded children . Journal of Speech and Hearing, 1974, 17, 510-517. (a)
10.
Carrier, J. K.Application of functional analysis and a nonspeech response mode to teaching language. In L. V. McReynolds (Ed.), Developing systematic procedures for training children's language, American Speech and Hearing Association Monograph No.18a, 1974. (b)
11.
Carrier, J. K.Application of functional analysis and a nonspeech response mode to teaching language. in R. L. Schiefelbusch & J. H. Hollis (Eds.), Language intervention from ape to child. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1979.
12.
Carrier, J. K. , & Peak, T.Non-SLIP: Nonspeech language initiation program. Lawrence, KS: H & H. Enterprises, 1975.
13.
Clark, E.Some aspects of the conceptual basis for first language acquisition. In R. L. Schiefelbusch & L. L. Lloyd (Eds.), Language perspectives: Acquisition, retardation, and intervention. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1974.
14.
Deich, R. F. , & Hodges, P. M.Learning from Sarah. Human Behavior, 1975, May.
15.
Deich, R. F. , & Hodges, P. M.Language without speech. London: Souvenir Press, 1977.
16.
Deich, R. F., & Hodges, M. M. Nonvocal communication for nonverbal retarded children, Final Report to BEH, G007603 152, 1978.
17.
Donovan, H.Organization and development of a speech program for the mentally retarded children in New York City public schools . American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 1957, 67, 455-459.
18.
Glass, A. , Gazzaniga, M., & Premack, D.Artificial language training in global aphasics. Neuropsychologia, 1973, 11, 95-103.
19.
Gould, J.Language development and nonverbal skills in severely mentally retarded children: An epidemiological study . Journal of Mental Deficiency Research, 1976, 20, 129-146.
20.
Hodges, P. M. , & Deich, R. F.Teaching an artificial language system to nonverbal retardates. Behavior Modification, 1978, 2, 489-509.
21.
Hodges, P. M. , & Deich, R. F.Language intervention strategies with manipulable symbols. In R. L. Schiefelbusch & J. H. Hollis (Eds.), Language intervention from ape to child. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1979.
22.
Johnson, W. (Ed.). Speech problems of children. New York: Grune & Stratton, 1950.
23.
Johnson, W. , Brown, S. F., Curtis, J. F., Edney, C. W., & Keaster, J.Speech handicapped school children (3rd ed.). New York: Harper & Row, 1967.
24.
Kahn, J. V.A comparison of manual and oral language training with mute retarded children . Mental Retardation, 1977, 15, 21-23.
25.
Klima, E. S. , & Bellugi, V.The signs of language. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979.
26.
Linville, S. E.Signed English: A language teaching technique with totally nonverbal, severely mentally retarded adolescents . Language, Speech and Hearing Services in the Schools, 1977, 8, 170-175.
27.
Munsch, K. M., & Reichert, D. Symbol communication training with autistic and autistic-like children. Unpublished manuscript, 1976.
28.
Mysack, E. D.Speech pathology andfeedback theory. Springfield IL: Charles C Thomas, 1966.
29.
Parkel, D. A. , & Smith, S. T.Application of computer-assisted language designs. In R. L. Schiefelbusch & J. H. Hollis (Eds.), Language interventionfrom ape to child. Balti-more: University Park Press, 1979.
30.
Piaget, J.The language and thought of the child. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich,1926.
31.
Piaget, J.The origins of intelligence in children. New York: Norton, 1952.
32.
Piaget, J.The construction of reality in the child. New York: Basic Books, 1954.
33.
Premack, D.A functional analysis of language . Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 1970, 14, 107-125. (a)
Premack, D.Teaching language to an ape . Scientific American, 1972, 227, 92-99.
36.
Premack, D.Intelligence in ape and man. New York: John Wiley, 1976.
37.
Richardson, S. 0.Language training for mentally retarded children, pp. 146-161 in R. L. Schiefelbusch, R. H. Copeland, & J. 0. Smith (Eds.), Language and mental retardation: Empirical and conceptual considerations. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1967.
38.
Rumbaugh, D. M. , & Savage-Rumbaugh, S.Chimpanzee language, research, status and potential. Behavior Research Methods and Instrumentation, 1978, 10, 119-131.
39.
Schiefelbusch, R. L.Language development and language modification, pp. 49-73 in N. G. Haring & R. L. Schiefelbusch (Eds.), Methods in special education. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967.
40.
Stevens, H. A. , & Heber, R.Mental retardation:A review of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964.
41.
Vanderheiden, G. C. , & Grilley, K.Non-vocal communication techniques and aidsfor the severely physically handicapped. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1975.
42.
Vernon, M. , & Koh, S.Effects of manual communication on deaf children's educational achievement, linguistic competence, oral skills, and psychological development. American Annals of the Deaf, 1970, 115, 527-536.
