Goal Orientation Differentiation in Visually Impaired Athletes,by Level of Visual Impairment

Abstract

Introduction: Athletes, who aim for even more perfection at every turn, have some orientations while achieving these goals. These orientations have been aimed to be explained with the goal orientation theory for many years. This study aims to examine the task orientation and ego orientation of visually impaired futsal players based on the level of their impairment. Methods: The sample of the study consisted of 54 visually impaired male athletes (64.8%-B2, 35.2%-B3) who participated in B2–B3 Futsal 2nd League matches in the 2018–2019 season. The Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire was used as the data collection tool in the research (Toros, 2004). The data were analyzed using Mann–Whitney U test. Results: Within the scope of the research, it was found that the task orientation of the athletes with B2-level visual impairment was higher than that of the athletes with B3-level visual impairment. However, this difference was not statistically significant (p > 05). In terms of ego orientation, on the other hand, it was determined that the ego orientation of the athletes with B3-level visual impairment was significantly higher than the athletes with B2-level visual impairment (p < .05). Discussion: In this study, considering that athletes with B3-level visual impairment (whose vision is better than B2 athletes) perceive themselves as more competent, it may be better understood why their ego orientation scores were higher. Ego orientation here is associated with visual acuity and, therefore, self-efficacy. Implications for practitioners: In future studies, goal-orientation theory may be examined for visually impaired athletes in different sports branches (for visually impaired people, e.g., athletics, B1 football, B2-B3 futsal, goalball, judo, swimming, and weightlifting). Besides, the relevant theory would become stronger when different disability groups in the sports environment are brought into research.

Keywords

visually impaired goal orientation task orientation ego orientation blindness

Many athletes, who know themselves better in the sports environment, recognize their own inadequacies and desire to be rewarded for their efforts (to recognize their own upper limits) or to know where they stand amongst other athletes with whom they share a common activity because of their nature as athletes. Success in sports, therefore, may be evaluated as the will to perfection (Erdemli, 2006), a concrete outcome of effort in sports. Athletes view success or failure based on whether they achieve the goal they set (Nicholls, Cheung, Lauer, & Patashnick, 1989). Athletes who fail to reach the goal they set may consider themselves as unsuccessful. According to goal-orientation theory, task-oriented and ego-oriented goals are athletes’ orientations on the road to success (Duda, 1986; Duda & Nicholls, 1992; Nicholls, 1989; Nicholls et al., 1989). The theory on this topic (goal orientation theory) has been conceptualized with the studies of researchers such as Nicholls (1984, 1989) and Dweck (1986). Although these researchers conducted pioneering studies on goal orientation, they aimed to reveal the topic with all its parameters. In this sense, one of the main theses of goal orientation is that there is a personal goal orientation in all successful activities. Task and ego orientations are next in importance in relation to differentiation of goal orientation. The fact that athletes are task-oriented in relation to their achievements, goal orientation includes athletes’ knowledge and the goal of acquiring skills and doing their best. Therefore, they tend to refer to themselves as to whether they are competent or not. Ego-oriented individuals, on the other hand, engage in their own skills and tend to compare themselves to others. These people have a low tolerance for failure (Duda, 1992; Nicholls, 1989). In this study, the question of “Does goal orientation differ by the visual impairment levels of athletes?” was discussed as the research question.

Regarding sports success in its most general form, according to the field of sports psychology, it may be stated that the literature focuses on the behaviors of athletes such as motivational orientations or superstitious behaviors (Weiss & Ferrer-Caja, 2002; Womack, 1992). The relationships between the motivations and behaviors of athletes—particularly, their desire to be successful—have been discussed in previous studies (Duda, 2001; Duda, Chi, Newton, Walling, & Catley, 1995; Duda & White, 1992; Kazak Çetinkalp, 2012; Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2003; Toros, 2002; Toros & Duvan, 2011). These studies have mostly discussed the effects of setting goals on behaviors and that the motivational climate of such goals may individually shape the goal orientation of the athlete or the team. Additionally, Kaplan and Maehr (2007) provided a comprehensive review of goal-orientation theory. It may be stated that goal-orientation theory is the most important motivational philosophy in the sports environment (Bortoli & Robazza, 2005). Examining studies addressing the problem, it was seen that goal orientation has been the topic of many studies related to sports, both in the fields of education (Moreno-Murcia et al., 2011; Papaioannou, 1998; Spray, Biddle, & Fox, 1999; Walling & Duda, 1995) and sports (Duda, 1988; Duda et al., 1995; Kazak Çetinkalp, 2012; Toros & Duvan, 2011). From the perspective of individuals competing in disability sports branches, different dimensions of the orientations exhibited by athletes in direct proportion to the type and level of their impairment while achieving their goals may be mentioned. It was seen that studies in the literature have focused more on the goal orientation of physically challenged athletes (Khoo et al., 2018; Proios, 2020; Proios et al., 2019; Skordilis et al., 2001; Varsamis & Agaliotis, 2011), and goal-orientation theory in visually impaired athletes should be strengthened (Dorogi, Szabo, & Bognár, 2008). In their study where they conducted a bibliometric analysis for disabled sports, Khoo et al. (2018) stated that the number of studies on visually impaired people was quite low.

Athletes reach their achievement goals not only through individual effort but also through the combination of many factors or the relationships of these factors to each other. Especially in team sports, the interaction with teammates, the opposing side or team and all other stakeholders during the competition is one of the determinants of sports success. High interaction between athletes (during the match) will bring along the harmonious movement of the athletes. However, depending on the task and ego orientations of the athletes, it may be possible for the team to act in harmony or to not be able to act in harmony. Among team sports, futsal is a sports branch played on a hard court with basic football (also known as soccer) rules. It is played within smaller boundaries in comparison to football and with a smaller goal. The narrowness of this space brings about short and quick passing. There is also no limit on the number of player substitutions. In terms of all these properties, it is a sports branch in which agility and speed are more prominent in comparison to football. It may be argued that its level of difficulty is higher, especially for visually impaired individuals.

In this study, by preferring visually impaired futsal athletes for inclusion, it was thought that the individual differences in the goal orientations of the athletes could be better observed. For the teams to be able to compete in equal conditions in matches, visually impaired athletes are categorized based on their degree of visual impairment. The classification of the International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA) is as: B1, visual acuity lower than LogMAR 2.6; B2, visual acuity ranging from LogMAR 1.5 to 2.6 (inclusive) and/or visual field constricted to a diameter of less than 10 degrees; and B3, visual acuity ranging from LogMAR 1.4 to 1.0 (inclusive) and/or visual field constricted to a diameter of less than 40 degrees (International Blind Sports Federation, n.d.).

It has been determined in several studies that visually impaired individuals are less capable of exhibiting their movement skills, and they need longer-term motor learning (Reimer et al., 2015; Reimer, Cox, Boonstra, & Smits-Engelsman, 2008). In these studies, mostly the inverse proportion between visual impairment level and movement ability has been identified, and it has been stated that, as the level of visual disability increases, a longer duration of motor learning may be required. It has also been mentioned that, in relation to the visual disability, young individuals need more time in developing their movement skills. The advantage of athletes with B3-level visual impairment (athletes who can see better than those with B2-level of visual impairment) in using motor skills may cause a differentiation in their goal orientation. In this regard, athletes may have different tendencies in task and ego orientation, depending on their level of visual impairment.

Therefore, it is appropriate to assume that task-oriented individuals are motivated by goal of completing the task, while ego-oriented individuals are motivated by recognition of their own skills. In this study of visually impaired athletes, we planned to strengthen goal-orientation theory. The aim of the study was to determine whether there is a difference in the goal orientation of athletes based on their visual impairment levels.

Method

In this descriptive study, the characteristics to be measured were determined by a cross-sectional survey design (Ekiz, 2009; Fraenkel & Wallen, 2008). A total of 54 visually impaired male athletes who participated in B2–B3 Futsal 2nd League first season matches in 2018–2019 were included in the research. The entire population participating in this tournament was asked to participate.

Sample

The number of visually impaired athletes who participated in the B2–B3 futsal competitions in 2018–2019 was 72; 54 (72.2%) athletes (other than goalkeepers and those who coded incorrectly) were included in the study. The number of the athletes with B3-level visual impairment was 19 (35.2%), and the number of the athletes with B2-level visual impairment was 35 (64.8%). The mean age of the athletes was 28.3±7 years (min. 16 years, max. 43 years), and they had been involved in this sport for a mean duration of 6.5 years. Cohen et al. (2000) stated that, for a group with a population of 50, 50 participants with 99% confidence and 44 participants with 95% confidence may be sufficient. Accordingly, the sample (n = 54) was sufficient in terms of representing the population of the study.

Data-Collection Tool

In the study, the Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire (TEOSQ), which was adapted to Turkish by Toros (2004), was used as a data-collection tool. The original form of the scale was prepared to determine individual tendencies in task and ego orientation in the sports environment (Duda, 1989; Duda & Nicholls, 1992). The scale has two subscales: task-oriented goals (7 items) and ego-oriented goals (6 items). Each item is scored between 1 and 5 (strongly agree/strongly disagree). In the adaptation study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients of the scale for the task-orientation subscale and for the ego-orientation subscale were found as .87 and .85, respectively. In the evaluation made on the data collected within the scope of this study, the Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficients were found as .86 and .71 for the task orientation and ego-orientation subscales, respectively. Moreover, in the adaptation study, in relation to the construct validity of the scale, the item factor loads in the Principal Component Analysis varied between .62 and .82.

Data Collection

Before the application, the necessary permissions were obtained from the Turkish Blind Sport Federation (federation review board, permission no: 14102019/1200), and the athletes participating in the study were informed about the topic. In October, informed consent documents were approved by both the participants and the federation review board before the initiation of the survey. The data were collected before the match hours at certain places and times using a questionnaire technique. Considering the degree of vision of the athletes, we enlarged the font size of the questionnaire to ensure it was legible to the participants. Additionally, in line with the demands of athletes with B2-level visual impairment (athletes with less vision than B3), we read aloud the questionnaires for these athletes and helped them participate in the implementation.

Statistical Analysis

The data were analyzed using the SPSS 21 statistical package program. In determining the distribution of the task and ego orientation scores by visual impairment status (B2–B3), Mann–Whitney U test for independent groups was used.

Results

Table 1 shows the Mann–Whitney U test results according to the participants’ levels of visual impairment. Accordingly, in the task-oriented goal subscale of TEOSQ, the task orientation of the athletes with B2-level visual impairment (median = 4) was higher than the athletes with B3-level visual impairment (median = 3.86). However, this difference was not statistically significant (U = 276.5, p = .31). In the ego-oriented goal subscale, on the other hand, the ego orientation of the athletes with B3-level visual impairment (median = 3.33) was significantly higher than the athletes with B2-level visual impairment (median = 2.67) (U = 218.5, p = .04.). Figure 1 shows the mean scores obtained from TEOSQ based on the participants’ levels of visual impairment.

Table 1.

Mann–Whitney U-test Results of Task and Ego Orientation by the Level of Visual Impairment.

Task-Ego	Group	n	Mean Rank	Sum of Ranks	U	p
TOG	B2	35	29.10	1018.5	276.5	.31
TOG	B3	19	24.55	466.5	276.5	.31
EOG	B2	35	24.24	848.5	218.5	.04^*
EOG	B3	19	33.50	636.5	218.5	.04^*

Note. TOG = task-oriented goals; EOG = ego-oriented goals. ^*p < .05.

Figure 1.

Distribution of task and ego orientation scores by the level of visual impairment. Note: TOG = task-oriented goals; EOG = ego-oriented goals.

Discussion

In line with the research question, we tried to understand what effect the differentiation in athletes’ levels of visual impairment (B2–B3) had on goal-orientation theory. In this study, it may be stated that the visually impaired individuals were task-oriented in general. The scores of the visually impaired athletes in the task-orientation subscale were higher than their scores in the ego-orientation subscale. Although another finding in the study revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between the scores obtained from the task-oriented goals subscale based on the participants’ levels of visual impairment, it was found that, in the ego-oriented goals subscale, the scores of the athletes with B3-level visual impairment were higher than the other athletes. Proios et al. (2019) concluded that physically challenged individuals, especially athletes, tend to be task oriented. In their study carried out with disabled athletes, Sorensen and Roberts (2004) determined that the task orientation mean scores athletes of both sexes were higher than their ego orientation mean scores. Similarly, it may be stated that, for most studies conducted on disabled people, the mean scores for task orientation were higher than the mean scores for ego orientation (Fliess-Douer, Hutzler, & Vanlandewijck, 2003; Skordilis et al., 2001). However, there are also studies that have suggested that ego orientation was high in disabled people (Dorogi et al., 2008). The fact that the task-orientation scores of the athletes were higher than their ego-orientation scores in this study was consistent with findings about disabled athletes and goal-orientation theory in the literature.

Sporting competitions are just one factor for athletes, since competitive sport requires an enormous sacrifice in terms of training and preparation, among other things. Therefore, it is quite natural that athletes are willing to be rewarded for their sacrifices. Some athletes are able to focus on the outcome, not their own performance limits. Being on the winning side despite their average performance may satisfy them, perhaps because of the negative experiences related to losing in childhood and positive feelings related to winning (pride, etc.). Duda and Nicholls (1992) stated that those who see themselves as competent are likely to have a high level of ego orientation in sports. Klinger (1975) associated the inflated ego with the fact that ego-oriented individuals with low perceived skills find little opportunity to demonstrate their excellence in the sports environment. In other words, individuals with low perceived skills will not expect to achieve what they interpret as success and will experience a decline in ego orientation.

In this study, considering that the athletes with B3-level visual impairment (whose visual abilities are better than those with B2 visual impairment) perceived themselves as being more competent, it may be better understood why their ego-orientation scores were higher. Specifically to futsal, since athletes with B3-level visual impairment see better than athletes with B2-level visual impairment, they may play with the ball in their own favor. When visual impairment is in question, athletes who are able to see better (B3) think they will make fewer mistakes and, thus, are willing to try more ambitious attempts to score, which is why they might be taking more responsibilities on the field. It may be stated that ego orientation here is associated with visual acuity, and therefore, self-efficacy.

Making a general assessment, when we examine both studies in the literature and this study, it is not entirely possible to reach a general opinion about disabled athletes. However, it may be stated that disabled athletes are more task oriented. In the ego-oriented goals subscale, the finding that the ego orientations of visually impaired athletes with better vision (B3) were higher was associated with that these athletes considered themselves as more competent.

Conclusion and Recommendations

Regarding the research presented here, the visually impaired individuals who were included in the study were more task oriented. The second and clearer result in the ego-oriented goals subscale was that the ego orientation of the athletes with B3-level visual impairment was higher than the ego orientation of the athletes with B2-level visual impairment. However, no statistically significant difference was found between the visually impaired athletes in the task-oriented goals subscale based on their levels of their visual impairment.

Although the principle of equality has been emphasized on the constitutional level (Anayasa Mahkemesi, 1982; Department of Economic and Social Affairs & Disability, 2019), issues related to disabled persons are sometimes neglected, and these individuals face many obstacles (Engelli Ayrımcılığını Önleme ve Mücadele Platformu, 2012; Perkins, Columna, Lieberman, & Bailey, 2013). As a relatively more isolated group in society, disabled individuals should have the same rights and freedoms as other people without being subjected to discrimination. However, it may be argued that people in general are not sufficiently selfless in terms of facilitating the inclusion of individuals with disabilities, and they usually neglect them (Pearce, 2017; Snook, 2019). There is a similar type of negligence in the sports environment, and there are few studies in the literature on disabled individuals (Khoo et al., 2018). As a matter of fact, Dorogi et al. (2008) stated that researchers should be encouraged and promoted to better understand the psychology of disabled athletes. It is not possible to talk about the consolidation of a theory in which disabled athletes are neglected. In further studies, therefore, the situation related to disabled athletes should be understood in terms of goal-orientation theory. If nuances of disability for visually impaired persons were examined regarding athletics, B1 football, B2-B3 futsal, goalball, judo, swimming, and weightlifting, more valid results would be obtained. In this way, goal-orientation theory would be further strengthened.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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