Barriers at Workplace: Challenges for Adults With Visual Impairments

Abstract

Introduction: A systematic review was carried out to determine and address the employment-related barriers encountered by persons with visual impairment. The existing database has been analyzed to summarize employment-related issues, facilitate support, and ensure rehabilitation and equal participation in employment. Methods: Fourteen peer-reviewed publications in more than 13 countries from 1998 to 2021 that met the criteria to address employment issues were selected to summarize workplace-related barriers, workplace experience, and assistive technology usage. A three-point rating scale was used to evaluate the studies based on the number of employment-related issues they emphasized. Results: The findings were drawn thematically and suggested that (a) various workplace-related issues, including transportation, (b) the employer's intention to hire, and (c) lack of assistive technology are the most crucial barriers to employment. Discussions: The article identified the barriers to employment of persons with visual impairment from the existing literature and discussed the significant issues. Society needs to support the inclusion of each individual and ensure equal participation. Implications for the Practitioners: The review will enable rehabilitation professionals to get an insight into the issues and risk factors related to the employment of persons with visual impairment. This will allow the professionals to work out strategies to address the same.

Keywords

visual impairment employment independent living

Higher education plays an indispensable role in achieving career goals for an individual, whether they are sighted or have a visual impairment. Many skills are required to be a professional, and expanding professional or occupational competencies which are vital for fulfilling workplace requirements. People with legal visual impairments have unique needs to participate actively in academics, daily living, and the workplace. Therefore, people with visual impairments must acquire those distinct skills per their needs before entering the world of work. A conducive workplace environment contributes to increasing productivity by ensuring sustainable economic development. The workplace-related competencies such as core knowledge about the workplace environment, job-related skills, and self-esteem need to be developed during high school and higher education. Career guidance can be provided by emphasizing value education, knowledge development, support, and encouragement (Antonelli et al., 2018) to pave the way for students to make career decisions. A social skills training package was used as a treatment strategy for improving the verbal job interview behaviors of four young adults with visual impairments. The package was a combination of instructions, modeling, behavior rehearsal, and constructive feedback by the participants that can be effective (Howze, 1987) in instilling the essential behaviors to attempt an interview.

Employers’ intentions (such as “if the person is fit for the job”) for hiring people are essential issues in employment for persons with visual impairment. It is viewed that the abilities of persons with visual impairments are consistently underestimated. In the Russian Federation, Martz (2007) found that people with disabilities faced barriers such as physical, attitudinal, and lack of other facilities at the workplace. According to Coffey et al. (2014), training for employers and availability of adaptive equipment, flexibility, better support, training, and work experience opportunities for persons with visual impairments are essential to overcome employment barriers. Opinions related to the productivity level of the employees had the most vital connection with the intent to hire them, followed by subjective norms and perceived behavioral control (McDonnall & Lund, 2020). The most frequently used devices like smartphones, computers (Sabata et al., 2008), and hardware and software programs, including the Kurzweil Reading Machine Total Talk, TalkBack in-built software for accessibility, JAWS, NVDA, VersaBraille system, and Braille-Edit, can be helpful for them as an employee.

The study was carried out with the following question: What factors hinder the successful employment of persons with visual impairments?

Methods

Search strategy

The collection of databases on special education and rehabilitation for persons with visual impairment in SAGE journals, Web of Science, and SCOPUS were used to identify the published empirical research on employment issues, self-concept and social adjustment, and the use of assistive technologies at the workplace. Legal blindness, low vision, women with visual impairment, employers’ attitude, barriers in employment, skill-based learning environment in school, self-concept (i.e., physical appearance, popularity, and happiness), self-esteem, transportation preferences, opinions on job opportunities and experience, accommodation, use of assistive technologies, mobility issues, time management and teamwork, computer-assistive technologies, and workplace-related experiences were considered as the significant aspects. Initially, 100 peer-reviewed papers were identified; 14 studies were selected and included to summarize the employment-related barriers.

Criteria for Inclusion

Studies conducted among participants with visual impairments, including individuals with total blindness and low vision, their sighted peers, and hiring managers were included; subjects ranged in age from 12 to 83 years. Studies emphasized that employment-related issues like communication barriers, obstacles in seeking a job, employers’ perspectives, and assistive technology were prioritized in the selection process. Articles written in English that had been peer-reviewed, based on original research work, and published between 1998 and 2021 were analyzed.

Data extraction

Data were extracted by the following criteria: author's name or names, publication year, the country where the study had been conducted, participants, sample size, age group, the tool used for data collection, the method used for analysis, and significant findings.

Evaluation of the Studies

The quality of the 14 selected studies was analyzed through thematic analysis, and a three-point rating scale was used to evaluate the papers based on the number of emphasized aspects. Each item was rated qualitatively, that is, “excellent,” “good,” and “fair.”
Excellent: meets all the criteria for employment issues, that is, workplace adjustment, self-concept, preparation for the interview, job-searching, and use of assistive technology;

Good: meets more than one issue (i.e., self-concept or workplace adjustment); and

Fair: meets only one criterion for employment issues.

Results

Fourteen peer-reviewed papers were analyzed to find out the workplace-related challenges, self-concept and workplace experience, and use of assistive technology.

Study Attributes

Among 14 studies, the comparison of workplace-related experiences between sighted and persons with visual impairments was found in three studies, and various workplace-related issues were reported in four different studies. In addition, the employer's perspectives toward hiring them were found in three studies, and the barriers to using assistive technology were reported in four studies. Most studies included fewer participants (less than 50), while five contained more than 100 participants (including hiring managers). Semi-structured in-depth interviews and surveys were commonly implemented. In contrast, the Piers-Harris Children's Self-Concept Scale, 1969 (Halder & Datta, 2012), the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Inventory (Tołczyk & Pisula, 2019), the Theory of Planned Behavior (McDonnall & Lund, 2020), and a 21-item Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-I) (Papakonstantinou & Papadopoulos, 2022) were implemented in four different studies.

Comparison of Workplace-Related Experiences

Garaigordobil and Bernarás (2009) analyzed the self-concept, self-esteem, other personality traits, and psychopathological symptoms among subjects with and without visual impairments. No significant differences in self-concept and self-esteem were reported, but adolescents with visual impairments scored significantly higher in various psychopathological symptoms than sighted subjects. In another study by Tołczyk and Pisula (2019), self-esteem and coping style and their relationship were compared among youth with and without visual impairments. No group differences in the global self-esteem domain were reported. However, the group with visual impairments scored higher in moral self-approval than sighted peers. Similarly, a significant difference was observed between sighted and adolescents with visual impairments in overall self-concept scores, including physical appearance, fame, pleasure, and gratification (Halder & Datta, 2012; see Table 1).

Table 1.
Comparison of Workplace-Related Experience Between Persons With Visual Impairments and Sighted Persons.

Author(s), publication year country Methods^a Main findings

Definition of sample^b Sample size Data collection^c Analysis

Garaigordobil and Bernarás (2009) Spain VI sighted
Age: 12–17 years (61 with no impairment and 29 with visual impairment) Total 90 – ANOVA Pearson coefficients No significant difference was noted in the context of self-concept and self-esteem. However, adolescents with visual impairment scored significantly higher in various psychopathological symptoms and their capacity for kind behavior. (Fair)

Tołczyk and Pisula (2019) Poland VI sighted secondary school students 100 Multidimensional self-esteem inventory^d – There were no group differences between youth with and without visual impairment in global self-esteem and the majority of self-esteem domains except moral self-approval. The group with visual impairments scored higher than their sighted peers. Females with visual impairments reported lower self-esteem related to body appearance. (Fair)

Halder and Datta (2012) India VI sighted
Age: 15–18 years 160 Piers-Harris, Children's Self-Concept Scale (1969) Mean, standard deviation, student's t-test Significant differences were noted among the sighted and visually impaired adolescents with respect to the overall self-concept scores, including the domains, namely physical appearance, popularity, happiness, and satisfaction. (Good)

Note. VI = visually impaired; ANOVA = analysis of variance.

a
Details of the participants, sample size, data collection procedure, and statistical analysis.

b
Visually Impaired Adults—employed/preparing for employment.

c
Data collection procedure—interview/other.

d
O’Brien and Epstein, in Polish adaption by Fecenec and Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations, by Endler and Parker, in Polish adaptation by Strelau, Jaworowsks, Wrresniewski, & Szczepaniak.

Workplace-Related Issues

Crudden et al. (1998) reported that the primary barriers to employment were employer attitudes, transportation, mobility problems, adaptive equipment, print access, accommodations, and lack of job opportunities. Annual income, hours worked per week, confidence level performing current work, and future job opportunities were significant based on participants’ gender, education, or marital status (Wolffe et al., 2013). Personal assistant services for persons with disabilities are not included in the Americans with Disabilities Act but are required in the workplace. Reasonable accommodation can be helpful in finding a job. Employers and personal assistant service users have developed many creative ways, and organizations can construct an approach focusing on task-related needs (Stoddard & Kraus, 2006). Adaptations in public transportation, such as bus stops, metro stations, and taxi stands (Papakonstantinou & Papadopoulos, 2022), must also be considered (see Table 2).

Table 2.
Workplace-Related Issues.

Author(s), publication year, country Methods^a Main findings

Definition of sample^b Sample size Data collection^c Analysis

Papakonstantinou and Papadopoulos (2022) Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, and Germany VI^d a40
Age: 18–64 21-item Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-I), a self-developed social support questionnaire Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficients, linear multiple regression Participants considered public transportation, such as bus stops, metro stations, and taxi stands, as more useful items referring to independent movement. (Fair)

Wolffe et al. (2013) Nigeria Employed VI 172 Questionnaire Mann-Whitney U-test Annual income, working hours worked, confidence level, and future job opportunities were significant based on participants’ gender, education, or marital status. (Good)

Stoddard and Kraus (2006) USA Workplace PAS^e employment organizations 20 workplace PAS 19 employment organizations Interview Qualitative analysis Task-related personal assistance was required to establish PAS policies and centralize accommodation budgets to remove work unit disincentives. (Fair)

Crudden et al. (1998) Mississippi Employed VI 166
Age: 25–83 Survey questionnaire Chi-square, factor analysis ANOVA Employer attitudes, transportation, mobility, print access, adaptive equipment, and lack of job opportunities were primary barriers. (Excellent)

a
Details of the participants, sample size, data collection procedure, and statistical analysis.

b
Visually impaired adults: employed/preparing for employment.

c
Data collection procedure: interview/other.

d
VI = visual impairment.

e
Personal assistance services.

Employers’ Perspectives

Attitudes toward an employee's productivity had the most critical association with intent to hire, followed by subjective standards and perceived behavioral control (McDonnall & Lund, 2020). Transition-age youths with visual impairments come across barriers in job-seeking activities, and few of the searches resulted in paid employment (Cmar & Steverson, 2021). The factors for successful work experience for employees with visual impairments were reported through interviews among employers. Employers emphasize dual responsibility; that is, employees have to empower their success, and employers must enable the employee's success (Golub, 2006; see Table 3).

Table 3.
Employers’ Perspectives Towards Persons With Visual Impairments.

Author(s), publication year country Methods^a Main findings

Definition of sample^b Sample size Data collection^c Analysis

Cmar and Steverson (2021) Mississippi Youths with VIs^d 88 Secondary data (follow-up data conducted from 2016 to 2019) Quasi-experimental study Participants reported barriers during a job search, and few searches resulted in paid employment, moderate level of preparation to handle the job-seeking barriers, and parental support for job-seeking. (Excellent)

McDonnall and Lund (2020) Mississippi Hiring managers 388 An online survey using a theory of planned behavior (TPB) Confirmatory factor analysis Attitudes about the productivity of a blind employee had the most vital relationship with intent to hire, followed by subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. (Excellent)

Golub (2006) USA Employers 22 Interviews Interrogative model Employers have emphasized dual responsibility, that is, employees have to empower their success, and the success of the employee who is visually impaired should be enabled by the employers. (Fair)

a
Details of the participants, sample size, data collection procedure, and statistical analysis.

b
Visually impaired adults—employed/preparing for employment.

c
Data collection procedure—interview/other.

d
Visual Impairment.

Assistive technology

Odame et al. (2021) conducted a study using a tracer approach to explore the views of 24 graduates with visual impairments and their employers/supervisors on the transition process from higher education to the workplace, job-related competencies, and challenges. Findings suggested that the graduates with visual impairments acquired job-related skills such as time management, interpersonal and teamwork skills from their university education. However, there was a lack of assistive technologies and communication equipment. Gauci (2021) in his study initially suggested that the barriers that persons with disabilities face in accessing assistive technology at the workplace do not directly result from their impairments. Subsequently, new ideas were developed to extend the range of ideas by applying the concepts from new materialisms of social models. Ampratwum et al. (2016) reported the limitations in the effective use of computer-assistive technology at schools, which is more personal and not merely due to external influences. However, the benefits of assistive technology for students with visual impairments can include greater access to educational materials, which in turn widens employment prospects (Kisanga & Kisanga, 2022; see Table 4).

Table 4.
Assistive Technology.

Author(s), publication year country Methods^a Main findings

Definition of sample^b Sample size Data collection^c Analysis

Odame et al. (2021) Ghana VI graduates Employers/supervisors 24
Age: 25–65 years Semistructured interviews Adopted Schomburg's tracer approach
Thematic analysis VI graduates acquired relevant work-related capabilities such as time management, interpersonal, and teamwork skills from their university education. The challenges they faced were the lack of assistive technologies and communication equipment at work. (Excellent)

Gauci (2021) Malta Island Employees with physical or sensory impairments 25 Interview
Observation Materialist
Analysis The research initially rested on the premise that disabled people face various barriers to access and use of technology in their employment that are not directly ensuing from their impairments. It then built on this premise by applying concepts from new materialisms to broaden the notions proposed by the social model of disability (Fair)

Kisanga and Kisanga (2022) Tanzania VI^d
Students
Transcribers 21 Open-ended questionnaire survey and semistructured interview Descriptive and thematic analysis Participants were well acquainted with the meaning of assistive technology with limited knowledge of its availability. Most of them were seeking assistance from others. (Good)

Ampratwum et al. (2016)Ghana VI
Second-year students 35 In-depth interview
Narrative methods and open quotes from interviews Thematic analysis The participants faced challenges such as limitations in the effective use of computer-assistive technology in the school, which was more personal than external influences. (Good)

a
Details of the participants, sample size, data collection procedure, and statistical analysis for the study.

b
Visually impaired adults: employed/preparing for employment.

c
Data collection procedure: interview/other.

d
VI = visual impairment.

Discussion

While evaluating the employment-related barriers, factors such as the participants’ employment status, study designs, objectives, sample size, the locale of the study, and the use of different data analysis procedures were considered, so the results of the studies varied. However, opportunities for employment-related skill development, interventions to create awareness about assistive technology, and assistance in using it were helpful for both employed and unemployed individuals. The intentions of hiring managers significantly differed between developed countries and countries with low economic status. Notions on the productivity of an employee with visual impairment had a robust relationship with the intent to hire (McDonnall & Lund, 2020). The dearth of assistive technologies and communication equipment at the workplace still exists, as reported by students in higher education, due to which most of the participants seek assistance from the sighted or more skilled students (Kisanga & Kisanga, 2022).

Conclusion

There is a significant deficiency in studies that could focus on substantial employment barriers, especially for persons with visual impairments in this era of technology. Some studies focused only on assistive technology-related issues, but not overall. There is an absence of studies on skillful preparation for employment aimed at persons with visual impairments, which is imperative in the present scenario. In addition, hiring managers must understand the limitations and the need of persons with visual impairments during working hours and provide suitable accommodations for employment.

Implications for Professionals

Based on the study's findings, it can be suggested that professionals have to provide training based on significant barriers faced by persons with visual impairments in employment. Appropriate training in professional skill development will enable the individuals to be skillful, ensuring independent living and equal participation.

Author(s), publication year country	Methods^a	Main findings
Garaigordobil and Bernarás (2009) Spain	VI sighted Age: 12–17 years	(61 with no impairment and 29 with visual impairment) Total 90	–	ANOVA Pearson coefficients	No significant difference was noted in the context of self-concept and self-esteem. However, adolescents with visual impairment scored significantly higher in various psychopathological symptoms and their capacity for kind behavior. (Fair)
Tołczyk and Pisula (2019) Poland	VI sighted secondary school students	100	Multidimensional self-esteem inventory^d	–	There were no group differences between youth with and without visual impairment in global self-esteem and the majority of self-esteem domains except moral self-approval. The group with visual impairments scored higher than their sighted peers. Females with visual impairments reported lower self-esteem related to body appearance. (Fair)
Halder and Datta (2012) India	VI sighted Age: 15–18 years	160	Piers-Harris, Children's Self-Concept Scale (1969)	Mean, standard deviation, student's t-test	Significant differences were noted among the sighted and visually impaired adolescents with respect to the overall self-concept scores, including the domains, namely physical appearance, popularity, happiness, and satisfaction. (Good)

Author(s), publication year, country	Methods^a	Main findings
Papakonstantinou and Papadopoulos (2022) Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, and Germany	VI^d	a40 Age: 18–64	21-item Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-I), a self-developed social support questionnaire	Pearson's product-moment correlation coefficients, linear multiple regression	Participants considered public transportation, such as bus stops, metro stations, and taxi stands, as more useful items referring to independent movement. (Fair)
Wolffe et al. (2013) Nigeria	Employed VI	172	Questionnaire	Mann-Whitney U-test	Annual income, working hours worked, confidence level, and future job opportunities were significant based on participants’ gender, education, or marital status. (Good)
Stoddard and Kraus (2006) USA	Workplace PAS^e employment organizations	20 workplace PAS 19 employment organizations	Interview	Qualitative analysis	Task-related personal assistance was required to establish PAS policies and centralize accommodation budgets to remove work unit disincentives. (Fair)
Crudden et al. (1998) Mississippi	Employed VI	166 Age: 25–83	Survey questionnaire	Chi-square, factor analysis ANOVA	Employer attitudes, transportation, mobility, print access, adaptive equipment, and lack of job opportunities were primary barriers. (Excellent)

Author(s), publication year country	Methods^a	Main findings
Cmar and Steverson (2021) Mississippi	Youths with VIs^d	88	Secondary data (follow-up data conducted from 2016 to 2019)	Quasi-experimental study	Participants reported barriers during a job search, and few searches resulted in paid employment, moderate level of preparation to handle the job-seeking barriers, and parental support for job-seeking. (Excellent)
McDonnall and Lund (2020) Mississippi	Hiring managers	388	An online survey using a theory of planned behavior (TPB)	Confirmatory factor analysis	Attitudes about the productivity of a blind employee had the most vital relationship with intent to hire, followed by subjective norms and perceived behavioral control. (Excellent)
Golub (2006) USA	Employers	22	Interviews	Interrogative model	Employers have emphasized dual responsibility, that is, employees have to empower their success, and the success of the employee who is visually impaired should be enabled by the employers. (Fair)

Author(s), publication year country	Methods^a	Main findings
Odame et al. (2021) Ghana	VI graduates Employers/supervisors	24 Age: 25–65 years	Semistructured interviews	Adopted Schomburg's tracer approach Thematic analysis	VI graduates acquired relevant work-related capabilities such as time management, interpersonal, and teamwork skills from their university education. The challenges they faced were the lack of assistive technologies and communication equipment at work. (Excellent)
Gauci (2021) Malta Island	Employees with physical or sensory impairments	25	Interview Observation	Materialist Analysis	The research initially rested on the premise that disabled people face various barriers to access and use of technology in their employment that are not directly ensuing from their impairments. It then built on this premise by applying concepts from new materialisms to broaden the notions proposed by the social model of disability (Fair)
Kisanga and Kisanga (2022) Tanzania	VI^d Students Transcribers	21	Open-ended questionnaire survey and semistructured interview	Descriptive and thematic analysis	Participants were well acquainted with the meaning of assistive technology with limited knowledge of its availability. Most of them were seeking assistance from others. (Good)
Ampratwum et al. (2016)Ghana	VI Second-year students	35	In-depth interview Narrative methods and open quotes from interviews	Thematic analysis	The participants faced challenges such as limitations in the effective use of computer-assistive technology in the school, which was more personal than external influences. (Good)

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Madhurenu Basu

Correction (May 2024):

Reference Crudden (2018) has been replaced with reference Crudden (1998) since the original publication of the article.

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Author(s), publication year country	Methods^a				Main findings
Author(s), publication year country	Definition of sample^b	Sample size	Data collection^c	Analysis	Main findings
Garaigordobil and Bernarás (2009) Spain	VI sighted Age: 12–17 years	(61 with no impairment and 29 with visual impairment) Total 90	–	ANOVA Pearson coefficients	No significant difference was noted in the context of self-concept and self-esteem. However, adolescents with visual impairment scored significantly higher in various psychopathological symptoms and their capacity for kind behavior. (Fair)
Tołczyk and Pisula (2019) Poland	VI sighted secondary school students	100	Multidimensional self-esteem inventory^d	–	There were no group differences between youth with and without visual impairment in global self-esteem and the majority of self-esteem domains except moral self-approval. The group with visual impairments scored higher than their sighted peers. Females with visual impairments reported lower self-esteem related to body appearance. (Fair)
Halder and Datta (2012) India	VI sighted Age: 15–18 years	160	Piers-Harris, Children's Self-Concept Scale (1969)	Mean, standard deviation, student's t-test	Significant differences were noted among the sighted and visually impaired adolescents with respect to the overall self-concept scores, including the domains, namely physical appearance, popularity, happiness, and satisfaction. (Good)

Barriers at Workplace: Challenges for Adults With Visual Impairments—A Systematic Literature Review

Abstract

Keywords

Methods

Search strategy

Criteria for Inclusion

Data extraction

Evaluation of the Studies

Results

Study Attributes

Comparison of Workplace-Related Experiences

Workplace-Related Issues

Employers’ Perspectives

Assistive technology

Discussion

Conclusion

Implications for Professionals