Abstract
The effect of a visual impairment on a student is widely acknowledged to be particularly significant for their acquisition of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) content (Jo et al., 2016; Jones et al., 2012; McDonnall et al., 2009; National Science Foundation [NSF] Division of Science Resource Statistics, 2009; Wild & Koehler, 2017). Students who are blind are less ready for science classes than their sighted peers, since such classes frequently include image-based learning objects (Darrah, 2013; Kolitsky, 2014). Specially trained teachers of students with visual impairments support students who are blind through assessment, modification of the learning environment, adaptation of curriculum, and direct instruction as required by the student's Individualized Education Program (Holbrook & Rosenblum, 2017a, 2017b; Lewis & Allman, 2014; Wild & Koehler, 2017). These teachers also must “pre-teach” (i.e., introduce concepts ahead of general education classroom lessons) vocabulary and concepts to prepare students to participate in classroom learning alongside their sighted peers (Holbrook & Rosenblum, 2017b; Lewis & Allman, 2014; Rosenblum et al., 2019; Wild & Koehler, 2017).
STEM content is heavily dependent on visual information in graphics such as charts, graphs, and diagrams (Beal & Rosenblum, 2015a, 2015b, 2018; Beal et al., 2019; Jones et al., 2006; Rosenblum & Herzberg, 2015; Rosenblum et al., 2021a, 2021b; Supalo et al., 2014; Wild & Koehler, 2017). The ability to understand mathematical relationships that are expressed in graphical form has been identified as a critical component of mathematics proficiency (Aldrich et al., 2003; Friel et al., 2001). Examples of information shown in graphics include relationships between variables that are expressed in line and bar graphs, proportional concepts that are depicted in circle graphs, and the density of data points shown in scatterplots. By fifth grade, students are expected to be able to use and understand line, bar, and circle graphs; and, by eight grade, they should be proficient with data representations such as scatterplots (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 2000).
Understanding graphical representations involves identifying specific information and then interpreting it. Clearly, if one cannot locate the relevant information in a graphic, it will be difficult, if not impossible, to interpret the information correctly. Missing key information on graphics leads to frustration in students, errors in problem solving, and dependence on the teacher of students with visual impairments or another adult for assistance (Beal & Rosenblum, 2015a, 2015b, 2018; Beal et al., 2019; Mazella et al., 2014; Rosenblum & Herzberg, 2015; Rosenblum et al., 2021a, 2021b).
Zebehazy and Wilton (2014) surveyed 306 teachers of students with visual impairments. Only 20% of the respondents felt that their students could use mathematics graphics independently, and only 22% reported that they had adequate time to provide instruction in how to read and interpret graphics. Rosenblum et al. (2018) conducted focus groups with 11 teachers of students with visual impairments, who reported that students must begin to develop graphics literacy skills in early elementary grades in order to be successful with STEM learning. Rosenblum et al. (2021a) noted [There is a] need to begin early with students in exploring graphics, learning about elements of graphics, and comparing different layout of graphics to avoid gaps in skills ability at later ages when students need to use and apply the skills to keep up with peers in class. (p. 548)
To better understand graphics literacy expectations for students who read braille and are in prekindergarten through fifth grade (PK-5), the authors designed a survey to answer four research questions.
What types of graphics literacy skills (e.g., vocabulary, systematic search) do teachers of students with visual impairments introduce to their PK-5 students? When do teachers of students with visual impairments introduce graphics literacy skills to their students and at what grade levels is each skill introduced? What are the greatest challenges PK-5 braille readers experience when asked to use graphics in their general education curriculum? What resources would teachers of students with visual impairments like to have developed to support their work in teaching graphics literacy skills to their students?
Method
Instrument
The researchers developed a survey that had six sections. All participants completed the first two sections. The first section collected demographic information. In the second section, participants were asked to select at what grade band (prekindergarten to kindergarten, first to third grade, or fourth to fifth grade) students were introduced to 45 graphical items (e.g., 10 frames, histograms, bar graphs with two categories, measuring with a ruler). The list of graphical items was developed by the authors who are certified teachers. The first and third authors observe student teachers in primary and secondary school classrooms and are knowledgeable of the Common Core State Standards (National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers, 2010) and Next Generation Science Standards (Next Generation Science Standards Lead States, 2013). The next three sections of the survey asked questions about challenges experienced by students at each specific grade band. The final section of the survey contained questions about teaching tactile graphics literacy skills to PK-5 students who read Braille.
The survey and list of graphical items were reviewed by two experts who were both teachers of students with visual impairments and math teachers. Based on their feedback, the list of graphical items was expanded, and the survey was finalized. Permission to conduct the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board at the University of South Carolina Upstate. Before beginning the survey, participants provided informed consent. All responses were anonymous and collected in spring 2022.
Data Collection
Data were collected using Qualtrics, an online survey tool on a protected server at the University of South Carolina Upstate. Snowball sampling was used by sharing a link with possible participants through listservs and social media platforms in the field of visual impairment, including AERNet General Discussion Listserv, AER Personnel Prep Listserv, state-level electronic discussion groups, Braille N Teach Listserv, Project INSPIRE Facebook group, and Teachers of Students with Visual Impairments & O&M Specialists Facebook group. No incentives were provided to participants. Participants were not required to respond to all questions in the survey; thus the response rate varied across questions.
Data Analysis
Quantitative and qualitative data were analyzed. Descriptive statistics are reported based upon number of participants answering each question. Qualitative data were analyzed by the first and third authors. Open-coding methods, based upon the methodology of Glasser as described by Walker and Myrick (2006), allowed the researchers to generate codes upon initial review of data without preconceived ideas or hypotheses. Themes were generated line by line and then refined within a whole data set until an emergent category arose to describe the data. Using this method of data coding does not result in a theory, only a description of the data results within a defined population.
Results
Background Information
Sixty-eight teachers of students with visual impairments (referred to as teachers for the remainder of this article) completed the survey. The teachers were from 26 states, with the most hailing from Texas (n = 10), Washington (n = 7), and New York (n = 6). For the 2021–2022 school year, the teachers reported serving a mean of 10 students directly (range 1–33, SD = 7.24) and 8.6 students (range 0–35, SD = 8.12) on a consultative basis. For the same school year, they reported serving a mean of 1.8 pre-braille or braille students (range 1–6, SD = 1.80) and 1.3 dual-media students (range 0–6, SD = 1.38). See Table 1 for additional demographic and caseload information.
Background and Caseload Information of the 68 Teachers.
Teachers were asked if during the 2019–2020, 2020–2021, and 2021–2022 school years they had worked with students who read or were learning to read braille (referred to as students for the remainder of the article) in each of three grade bands. Forty-two (61.8%) teachers had worked with prekindergarten-kindergarten students; 59 (86.8%) teachers had worked with first-, second-, or third-grade students; and 39 (57.4%) teachers had worked with fourth- or fifth-grade students.
Grade Band at Which Curriculum is First Introduced
To understand when students were first expected to use 45 specific graphical items in their core curriculum classes (e.g., language arts, mathematics, science, and social studies), teachers were provided seven response choices. The choices were:
prekindergarten or kindergarten; first, second, or third grade; fourth or fifth grade; Introduction to this item varies based on curricula and students’ abilities; I am not sure when my prebraille or braille students were first introduced to this item; This item is not part of any curricula my prebraille or braille students are using where I teach; and I do not know.
Table 2 reports data about when the 45 items are introduced. It should be noted that all participants completed this section, even if they were not currently serving students across the grade bands.
Grade Band When Graphical Items Were Introduced to Students as a Percentage of Responding Teachers.
Only participants who served one or more students at specific grade bands (e.g., prekindergarten or kindergarten) were asked questions about the most commonly used graphical items, as well as the specific graphical items that were most challenging for their students. Results are reported by grade bands; they may only account for subject matter in that specific grade band.
Students in Prekindergarten or Kindergarten
The 42 teachers who had worked with prekindergarten or kindergarten students in the last three school years were asked to select the five graphical items that students used the most, the five graphical items that were most challenging for students to locate information on, and the five graphical items that were the most challenging for students to interpret information from.
The most commonly used graphical items for prekindergarten or kindergarten students were:
tactile graphics of 2D shapes (n = 36), tactile graphics of common objects (n = 26), physical model of 3D shapes (n = 26), number lines made with a texture and braille (n = 17), measuring objects using nonstandard units (n = 15), simple maps (n = 15), and tactile graphics of more advanced 2D shapes (n = 14). tracing with a pencil dotted print number (n = 21), tactile graphics of 3D shapes (n = 19), graphic organizers (n = 17), do-to-dot activity sheets (n = 16), picture graphs or pictographs (n = 15), simple maps (n = 13), bar graphs with 3 or more categories (n = 11), and number lines made with a texture and braille (n = 10). bar graphs with 3 or more categories (n = 21), measuring objects using non-standard units (n = 16), graphic organizers (n = 16), tactile graphics of 3D shapes (n = 13), dot-to-dot activity sheets (n = 12), number lines made with a texture and braille (n = 11), tracing with a pencil dotted print number (n = 10), and picture graphs or pictographs (n = 10).
There were eight items that 10 (24%) or more teachers identified on which their students found challenging to locate information:
There were eight items that 10 (24%) or more teachers selected from which their students found it challenging to interpret information:
“Number lines made with a texture and braille” was the only item that appeared on all three lists.
Students in First, Second, or Third Grade
The 59 teachers who had worked with a student in first, second, or third grade within the last three school years were asked the same questions about the most commonly used and most challenging graphical items. The teachers reported the mostly commonly used graphical items by their first, second, or third grade students were:
physical models of 3D shapes (n = 21); number lines made completely in braille (n = 20); fraction tiles, fraction bars, or visual fraction models (n = 20); tactile graphics of 2D basic shapes (n = 19); rulers to measure actual objects (n = 16); and simple maps (n = 15).
There was much variation about the most challenging graphical items for students at this grade band. For example, there was only one item that 25% (n = 15) or more teachers selected on which their students found it challenging to locate information. Sixteen teachers selected “maps with a key.” Similarly, there was only one item that 25% (n = 15) or more teachers selected from which their students found it challenging to interpret information. Sixteen teachers selected “line plots or dot plots.”
Students in Fourth or Fifth Grade
Due to a problem in the survey logic, the 39 teachers who reported they had worked with fourth- or fifth-grade students in the last three school years were not provided an opportunity to select five items that were most often used by students, most challenging for students to locate information on, and most challenging for students to interpret information from.
Teaching Graphics Literacy Skills
Teachers were provided a list of five choices and asked what is the first and second tasks a student should do when they initially receive a tactile graphic. Two out of three teachers (n = 36) believed that a student should use a systematic approach early in their graphics exploration process, and 60% (n = 33) of the teachers believed one of the first things students should do is read the title (see Table 3 for additional information).
First and Second Items a Student Should Do When They Initially Receive a Tactile Graphic (n = 53).
Teachers were then asked to describe, in an open-ended response question, how they pre-teach or introduce a new type of graphic to their students to prepare them for learning in their academic classes. Sixteen of the 48 open-ended responses described a systematic approach to teaching students about the different components of tactile graphics, how to locate information on tactile graphics in organized manner, or both. The description of the approaches often included verbal feedback, questioning to assess student learning, and practice and repetition. For example, one teacher said: Discuss the concept, how to use materials for class assignments, what to look for, and use a systematic approach to searching material top to bottom, left to right. Let them explore the material(s) and describe what they think it is and what it conveys. See if they can answer any questions regarding the arrangement, and perimeters of the graphic. Ask to see what is confusing? Practice and practice. Then give them a similar graphic and observe the process they use, giving them time to ask questions. Then ask them questions to check for comprehension. Reflect then decide what I need to do to assist, change/modify to improve their understanding and analysis of the materials. I make sure they have the understanding of concepts and if there is a key, we go over the different textures (how they are different) and what they represent. I give an overall description of whatever the topic is if there are tables, graphs, maps, Venn diagrams, etc. so they are thinking about what they are looking for on the tactile graphic. I always keep in mind what the classroom teacher wants the children to get out of the lesson to make sure that is part of my teaching about interpreting the tactile graphic.
Desired Resources for Teachers
In another open-ended question, teachers were asked what resources they would like to have developed to support their work in teaching graphics literacy skills to their PK-5 students. Twenty-nine of the 46 teachers that responded to the question reported that they would like a curriculum that included systemic methods for teaching and pre-teaching tactile graphics skills, with examples of different materials, possible scripts for explaining tactile diagrams with complex information, and skills checklists. [I want] a curriculum that separates each of the tactile graphics that you have laid out in this survey. Then, I could go to the one that the student needs to learn, let's say “arrays to work on 2-digit multiplication” and teach that unit or chapter.
Challenges Students Experience with Different Types of Graphics
Teachers were asked an open-ended question about the challenges students experienced with tactile graphics in textbooks or standardized tests and how they overcame the challenges. Of the 45 teachers who responded, the most frequently reported challenge (n = 21) was a lack of uniformity, including quality, across graphics. For example, one teacher shared, “Depending on how tactile graphics are produced in textbooks, the quality is poor and [it is] difficult to differentiate textures.” This lack of representation uniformity can lead to challenges in interpreting the concepts portrayed in the graphics, as reported by nine teachers. Further challenging students, as reported by seven teachers, is the lack of graphics in standardized assessments or graphics on standardized assessments that students had not prior experienced. One teacher explained, “This year on the state standardized test, the number lines were vertical instead of horizontal. My student had never encountered that in her books and was challenged. We are allowed to describe the graphics, so I did so.” Additional difficulties reported by teachers were lack of lead time to prepare graphics (n = 5) and a lack of availability of ready-made graphics to use in the classroom (n = 3).
Teachers were then asked about the challenges students encountered with tactile graphics made with readily available materials (e.g., Wikki Stix, QuickTac drawing, Draftsman, Wheatley Picture Maker, and PIAF) that they produced quickly to provide access to the classroom curriculum and how they overcame these challenges. Forty-four teachers responded to the question, and the most frequently reported challenges were the poor quality and lack of uniformity in tactile graphics (n = 15), along with a lack of an appropriate amount of time to make the graphics (n = 16). Other reported challenges included difficulty with concept development, tactile aversion, and the lack of durability of tactile graphics. There were no clear methods reported by teachers to overcome these challenges, but they recommended designing tactile graphics with the specific needs of the student in mind, using commercially available mass-produced tactile graphics, and communicating with classroom teachers regarding the tactile graphics they need to make.
Discussion
The teachers who participated in this study reported that students must be taught tactile literacy concepts so they can participate in classroom learning alongside their sighted peers. This response echoes the findings of Rosenblum et al. (2019), Wild and Koehler (2017), and Zebehazy and Wilton (2014). Teachers also reported that their students encounter a wide variety of graphical representations in elementary school. It has been previously noted that students should begin exploring tactile graphics and learning about elements introduced within a tactile graphic at an early age (Rosenblum et al., 2021a). This study extends the research base by presenting a comprehensive list of graphics that students are likely to encounter prior to the completion of fifth grade.
Specialized training for teachers is imperative to ensure the success of students who read braille and use tactile graphics in academic classrooms (Holbrook & Rosenblum, 2017a, 2017b; Lewis & Allman, 2014; Wild & Koehler, 2017). However, little is known about what type of training teachers receive on creating and teaching tactile graphics literacy, especially as part of their initial preparation. The teachers who participated in this survey desired additional training specific to promoting concept development and creating tactile graphics. They also requested checklists and more comprehensive tactile graphic libraries. Some of the teachers were also concerned about their students’ success on standardized assessments. Collaborative and comprehensive training is needed for both teachers and individuals creating tactile graphics in order to promote uniformity for use in classrooms and on standardized assessments.
Limitations
The study was only open to U.S. teachers. Thus, experiences of teachers outside of the United States and others (e.g., paraeducators or braille transcribers) who support PK-5 students in their education were not elicited. Due to an error in the survey logic, information about challenging graphical items was not gathered from the 39 teachers who worked with students in fourth or fifth grade. The absence of these data diminishes the study findings. All data were self-reported, thus, it is possible that teachers were not accurate in their recollections. In addition, the survey was long and there were teachers who did not complete the survey; as a result, their data was not included in the analysis. Teachers who did not have students in certain grade bands were possibly making judgments about the 45 items being used in those grade bands. Finally, not all teachers who work with PK-5 pre-braille or braille students may find the survey topic of interest or have the time to take a survey. Thus, the teachers who did participate may not be representative of the population.
Future Research
Primary- and secondary-education students should be observed in authentic STEM instruction during which they use the tactile graphics and other tools identified in this study (e.g., 10 frame, yardstick). There is also a need to further investigate the meaningfulness of tactile graphics when they are used to represent 3D shapes or 3D concepts. Research is also needed to explore how individuals who are braille readers and employed in STEM fields successfully access graphical information to complete job-related tasks. In addition, future research should examine how elementary school students access instructional materials, the effect of pre-teaching, and how the quality of tactile graphics affects the success of students in terms of learning content and accurately answering questions on high-stakes tests. Following a group of elementary school students who use tactile graphics for multiple school years would also allow researchers to develop a deeper understanding of the process students undergo when developing and refining their skills for locating and interpreting information presented in tactile graphics.
Implications for Practitioners
By the time students enter fourth grade, they have been introduced to and are expected to use 35 of the 45 graphical items included in the survey. Although the list was not exhaustive, it is probable students have even more items that come under their fingertips during the elementary school years. Although information shared by the study participants about when graphical items are introduced to students may serve as a guide, teachers of students with visual impairments are encouraged to work closely with classroom teachers to determine when specific graphical items should be introduced to their students. Teachers must also recognize that there are times when tactile graphics are not appropriate, and 3D models should be used instead. Additionally, teachers of students with visual impairments and other educational team members must work diligently to pre-teach students the skills they need to locate and interpret information within the many educational materials that they will encounter during the school day. Otherwise, students who are braille readers may not be able to fully access core curriculum content. Curricula is needed that lays out foundational skills students must develop and provide teachers with structured lessons for teaching these foundational skills.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.