Book Review: The Pseudepigrapha on Sexuality: Attitudes toward Sexuality in Apocalypses,Testaments,Legends,Wisdom,and Related Literature

This book represents the third volume in a series by William Loader that explores Jewish and Christian perspectives on sexuality during the Greco-Roman period, specifically during the third century bce–first century ce. It is divided into three sections: (1) Apocalypses, Testaments, and Related Writings; (2) Histories, Legends, and Related Writings; and (3) Psalms, Wisdom Writings, and Fragmentary Works. Included are discussions about the apocryphal/deuterocanonical books found in the Roman Catholic canon (Baruch, 1 & 2 Maccabees, Tobit, Judith, Wisdom of Solomon, Ben Sira, Susanna [an addition to Daniel], and additions to Esther). The section on Ben Sira (a.k.a. Sirach, Ecclesiasticus) is a contribution by Ibolya Balla based on her dissertation. Each discussion begins with background information about the work (e.g., origin, possible dates, authorship, extant manuscripts). Loader cites the critical editions of his primary sources in the footnotes, usually early in the discussion of a particular text. He also acknowledges when he is dependent upon secondary literature for his discussion of a text.

A recurring theme in many of Loader's discussions is the adaptations of, or allusions to, the myth of the Watchers (e.g., heavenly beings who had sexual relations with human females; cf. Gen 6:1–4). For example, he notes that the concern in 1 Enoch is primarily that the angels led humans astray via forbidden knowledge (particularly metallurgy used to make weapons), whereas 2 Enoch focused more on the angels’ acts of intercourse with human females. Other sections in which Loader discusses the Watchers myth (sometimes as a basis of comparison) include: Sibylline Oracles (Books 1–2), Baruch, 2 Baruch, Apocalypse of Abraham, Testament of Solomon, Liber Antiquitatum Biblicarum (LAB), Wisdom of Solomon, 4 Maccabees, and Pseudo-Eupolemus.

Loader meticulously addresses other topics related to sexuality, whether literal or metaphorical, as needed. Two major topics are marriage (including problems of intermarriage with non-Jews or, in the case of Joseph and Aseneth, conditions under which marriage with a female proselyte is acceptable) and adultery. Less frequent topics include male same-sex acts, virginity, procreation, childbirth, pederasty, incest, bestiality, and rape. Cult prostitution is mentioned with idolatry in the Letter of Jeremiah. He draws special attention to the positive appreciation of pregnancy and childbirth in 4 Ezra. Predictably, marriage is the major subject of Loader's analysis of Tobit. Gender roles are an important topic in the Testament of Job, “The Tale of the Three Youths” (1 Esdras 3:1–5:6), and Judith. Even the personification of Wisdom as a woman (e.g., Baruch, Wisdom of Solomon) is included in Loader's discussions, as are references or allusions to historical figures (e.g., Cleopatra in Sibylline Oracles, Book 3; Herod in the Testament of Moses). Other works explored by Loader that have not already been mentioned include: Testament of Abraham, Psalms of Solomon, Pseudo-Aristeas, Pseudo-Phocylides, Theodotus, and a few fragmentary works or later works of disputed provenance.

Loader can be linguistically technical while also demonstrating some consideration for non-specialists (e.g., on p. 8 he mentions possible translation of a verb as either a future or past imperfect, while later clarifying that “sons of men” refers to humanity and, in the context, to women, specifically). Knowledge of Greek (and, to a lesser degree, Hebrew, Syriac, and Latin) is beneficial but not usually necessary. For entire verses or passages, Loader quotes from other English translations but sometimes adds his own translation if needed to elucidate his point.

Balla provides her own translation of the Ben Sira based on the Hebrew and Greek. Her Hebrew text is primarily based on that of Beentjes (Leiden, 1997), which has been critiqued as having some serious flaws (Di Lella, CBQ 60 [1998]: 107–8; Müller, BN 89 [1997]: 19–21), and secondarily, that of Lévi (Leiden, 1904), whose work is also known to contain errors. Balla uses the Rahlfs/Hanhart LXX for the Greek over the critically superior Göttingen LXX (the latter of which is, however, consulted; so also in Loader's section on the Wisdom of Solomon). Balla's discussion of Ben Sira is good overall but should be read with caution due to the primary sources used, as well as her attribution to Skehan of some material that actually was written by Di Lella when citing their co-authored Anchor Bible commentary (e.g., p. 387).

There is a possible point of confusion regarding the wrapping of Hebrew phrases when they appear within an English sentence, occurring most often in Balla's section on Ben Sira. The beginning of the Hebrew text is found in the second line of the text just before the English text resumes. The monograph is almost entirely consistent in wrapping all Hebrew text (within an English sentence) in this manner. One exception occurs on p. 242 (n. 410), in which the Hebrew begins at the end of the first line and continues to the second line.

Nevertheless, Loader's extensive use of primary and secondary sources is impressive, and his analyses are appropriately cautious when a particular interpretation is tenuous. This, combined with the background information on each ancient writing, makes this monograph invaluable for anyone doing research on any of these texts, whether the reader is interested in the topic of sexuality or not.