Abstract
The study of Roman antiquity and the study of early Christianity are more often than not two entirely separate fields that seldom cross, though in recent years there has been more effort on the part of scholars of early Christianity to interact with those of Roman history in order better to understand the Christian material in its context. While there are many studies of early Christian burial art and practices, rarely does the student of early Christianity have occasion to see the Christian material treated by a Roman scholar as one development among many within the broader context of ancient Rome, that is, as something that belonged there. Such is the case here, however, and the result is rewarding for both interests.
Barbara Borg, Professor of Classical Archaeology at the University of Exeter, examines the evidence for burial practices during the third century CE, that important time between imperial power at its highest and the transition to late antiquity brought on in the fourth century. It so happens that the third century is also an important transition time for Christianity, which appears still in the late second century as loosely organized in small communities but emerges in the fourth century poised to assume imperial control.
In the third century, two new customs in burial practices begin that will have important consequences later: first, already early in the century an apparent lack of space drives owners of private burial plots to create hypogea, underground chambers in which their family burials continue; second, some so-called “egalitarian” burials begin to appear, probably first among members of the extended imperial household, whereby burials are not distinguished by status, wealth, or family cohesion, but all receive the same treatment in space shared by seemingly unrelated persons. A century later, these practices would develop into extensive combined common systems, the Jewish and Christian “catacombs.” At the same time, though, elaborately carved sarcophagi continue to be used both above and below ground. One of the puzzles for the scholar today is why so much time and money was sometimes spent on a beautifully sculpted sarcophagus to be placed in an underground family vault with very limited viewing access.
Another tendency that appears in third-century burial iconography is a shift away from themes emphasizing the horror of death. Rather, more bucolic or pastoral themes are favored: shepherds, fishermen, and other scenes of happiness. There is also at this period increased use of the clypeus or circular bust of the deceased, a sort of “selfie,” at the center of the sarcophagus front.
Many of what will later become predominantly Christian burial areas were not so in their beginnings, and the earliest discussions about Christian burials do not suggest an immediate perception of the need for them to be together in exclusive groupings. What towards the end of this period are recognized by scholars as likely beginnings of Christian symbols in burial art, e.g., shepherd, dove, anchor, orante figure with raised hands, and inscription in pace must be seen as characteristically, but not exclusively, Christian, as they do sometimes appear elsewhere, whereas the appearance of undoubtedly biblical themes like the Jonah cycle or Daniel with lions in the late third century can be explained only as Christian appropriation of the biblical stories. After this point, a single shepherd figure may transition from bucolic figure to Jesus as Good Shepherd, but this cannot be assumed. The shepherd figure remains young, unbearded, and wearing a short tunic, just like his earlier pastoral representations. Christian iconography begins only when there are a significant number of wealthy Christians to make their presence visible. In the case of the famous Santa Maria Antiqua sarcophagus of the late third century with its depiction of Jonah and the sacrifice of Abraham, “traditional motives of pietas and education have obtained a new significance and focus as they might now refer to God and the Scriptures, but the more general ideas of the vita felix still prevail” (259) in shepherd, philosopher, and female orante depicted on the sarcophagus along with the clearly biblical stories.
In summary, for those interested in the history of Christianity, some of the characteristics of Christian burials can already be seen in the third century that will provide backdrop for later: the popularity of underground burial, group burials even in older reused tombs and now-dry cisterns, and greater use of images of happiness rather than death itself, all factors more widely developed as distinctive Christian themes emerged.
This is not a book for beginners; it is highly detailed and written for scholars already familiar with the field. But with its extensive discussions and 140 images and plans (some of which are so detailed that a magnifying glass is necessary), it is a feast for the reader who is seriously interested in the development of Roman burial practices, including those that would blossom into early Christianity.