Abstract
Genesis 13–14–15 form a discrete literary unit which portrays Abraham as generous, courageous, and yet upset and deeply discouraged. The chapters divide into two parts, 13–14 and then 15. Pairs or dualities, as well as external and internal conflicts characterize these subsections, often highlighting divergence or difference. Several significant theme-/leading-words each appear seven times in these chapters. Further, there are seven occasions in each subsection (13–14 and 15) where the name of the deity appears as the Tetragrammaton, YHWH.
When God invites Abraham to leave his native land to go to an unknown destiny, the deity promises the patriarch that he would become a great nation (Gen 12:2). Although not stated specifically, the implication is that he will sire a successor, despite the fact that technically, he takes a representative of the next generation with him in the figure of his nephew Lot. Then, for ten years, this divine promise remains unfulfilled. In this period, partially spent in Egypt, Abraham prospers. This time, which is clearly frustrating for Abraham, teaches us a great deal about the patriarch's character. How does he deal with what he rightfully regards as an assurance unrealized? These chapters portray a person who is generous, courageous, and yet upset, deeply discouraged, and frustrated. Strife and promise characterize these years. The text in Genesis 13–14–15, nestled between chapters that feature Abraham and the significant women in his life (Sarah, Gen 12; Sarah and Hagar, Gen 16), expands our knowledge about Abraham as a person. These three chapters highlight his growing concerns about who will be his heirs. He interacts with family, and local chieftains, as well as having significant communication with God.
Genesis 13–14–15 divides into two parts, Genesis 13–14 and then 15. Taken together these subsections feature many pairs/dualities. Pairs/dualities are not the same narrative device as doubling. Pairs/dualities are when the narrative contrasts two figures, two locales, two groups, or something is presented as “this and/or that.” Doubling is a device when “events, or words, or people, or other items appear twice in some manner” (Hyman: 76; cf. Ackerman: 85ff.). There also are situations of external and internal conflicts. Often these pairs/dualities and external/internal conflicts reflect a subtle message or nuance highlighting divergence or difference. In some cases, they are characterized by a demarcation of positive versus negative (Us versus Other). In this way, the literal words of the Genesis text mimic the narrative's description of the tensions between characters, as well as their interactions. Abraham's concerns are reflected literarily as well. Several significant theme-/leading-words (notably, offspring/possessions) each appear seven times in these three connected chapters. (Regarding the repetition of certain words, Michael Fishbane explains that in the biblical text, one “particular recurrent and transparent technique is the theme-word. Because Hebrew words are essentially built around triliteral stems, the same stem may recur in one and the same text in different nominal, verbal, and adjectival forms. Such repetition, where it occurs, gives a text special texture; and it also serves to highlight major and minor features of content. A reader may thus be guided or provoked towards certain interpretations on the basis of theme-words recurrent in one or several texts which are thereby brought into association” (Fishbane: xii). See also Everett Fox, who explains that Martin Buber called this idea the “‘leading-word’ (Leitwort) principle. Key (‘leading’) words are repeated within a text to signify major themes and concerns, like recurring themes in a piece of music. … A leading-word operates on the basis of sound: the repetition of a word or word root encourages the listener to make connections between diverse parts of a story (or even of a book), and to trace a particular theme throughout” (Fox: xvi). God's presence likewise is woven in literarily. There are seven occasions in each subsection (13–14 and 15) where the name of the deity appears as the Tetragrammaton, YHWH. Finally, these three chapters contain elements previously found or which will appear in the life of Abraham.
Genesis 13, 14, 15: An overview
Arguably the most dramatic events in Abraham's life are God's call, the two so-called Wife-Sister episodes (Gen 12 and 20), the expulsion of Hagar and Ishmael (Gen 21), and the Binding of Isaac (Gen 22). Abraham's first decade in Canaan receives less attention. Yet, during that period, his nephew Lot separates from his kin and moves to Sodom, and God addresses Abraham (Gen 13). Abraham demonstrates his skills as a military tactician, and he encounters the king/priest of Salem, Melchizedek (Gen 14); God dramatically indicates to Abraham that he literally will sire many descendants, even as the patriarch voices his concerns (Gen 15).
The importance of Genesis 13–14 and 15
Chapters 13–15 broaden our understanding of Abraham's character. Up to this point, we know very little about the first patriarch. The biblical text is silent about his first seventy-five years. Chapter 12 had presented a figure who obeys God's call, and who in turn calls upon God's name in the new land. Yet, when he was in Egypt, Abraham was cunning and not altogether truthful about his relationship with Sarah. Now we see another Abraham. He is openhanded with his nephew Lot (Gen 13). Abraham shows concern for his kin when Lot is kidnapped, despite the fact that at this point, Lot, having settled in Sodom probably is no longer the heir-apparent. In addition, Abraham displays military/tactical prowess in recapturing those kidnapped. He is respectful with the king/priest of Salem and shows a kind of independence from the king of Sodom (Gen 14). Finally, Abraham openly displays his frustration with his lack of an heir from his household. He petulantly addresses God, speaking with a scepticism that borders on blasphemy when he does not appear to get his way.
Just who exactly will constitute the next generation, the pledged and privileged future seed that God guaranteed, serves as an important sub-theme of chapters 13 through 15. Nothing in chapter 12 addresses the vital question of clearly identifying Abraham and Sarah's promised progeny. Although offspring (zar-a'kha) are mentioned (Gen 12:7), the thrust of the word is generic; it could refer to Lot. Yet as the decade unfolds (in Gen 16:3 the text notes specifically that Abraham and Sarah have spent ten years in the land of Canaan) Abraham becomes increasingly anxious about who will succeed him. He maintains good relations with Lot, and generously offers his nephew the choice of where he would prefer to settle, the land not being fertile enough for the number of animals they are both grazing. Lot chooses to move to the Jordan Valley, near Sodom. Later in chapter 13, God once again reassures Abraham that his many “offspring” will inherit the land (v 16, twice). Lot at this point remains the logical choice as heir-apparent. Lot's viability for this position, however, is tainted by his decision as to where to live, for “the inhabitants of Sodom were very wicked sinners against YHWH” (Gen 13:13). (In his decision to choose land “outside the borders of Canaan … Lot effectively removes himself from any possible consideration as the one who shall inherit the land promised to his uncle”–-Hamilton: 393).
By chapter 15 Lot is no longer a contender. With painfully deep frustration, Abraham moans to God that it is clear that “the one in charge of my household is Dammesek Eliezer … [and that] my steward will be my heir” (Gen 15:2–3). God replies and says, clearly this is not so, for “your very own issue shall be your heir” (Gen 15:4). Chapters 13–15, therefore fill in details about the decade spent in Canaan, and bring the narrative forward to the point where Sarah (in chapter 16) takes charge of the situation, and offers Hagar as a surrogate womb, to create the conditions that will bring about an heir.
(This concept of surrogate motherhood was enshrined in Near Eastern law and tradition. If a wife, especially of the upper classes, was unable to bear children, she could designate someone to serve in her place. This designee bears the husband's child and that child becomes the official heir. For the cultural context of this legalized surrogate motherhood, see Speiser: 119–21; Sarna, Understanding Genesis: 127–29; JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis, comment to verse 2: 119.)
Pairs/dualities in chapters 13–14
Pairs/dualities fill chapters 13–4. In 13, the most obvious examples are the persons of Abraham and his nephew Lot, and the fact that they part from each other, choosing to live in two different locales. In addition, there are Abraham's herders and those of Lot, generic reference to the hill country of Canaan, and the cities of the Plain (which form another pair/duality, Sodom-Gomorrah, Zoar). These pairs/dualities also are freighted with values: a kind of positive versus negative, Us versus Other. Abraham, Abraham's herders, and Canaan are part of the “positive/Us” camp, while Lot, Lot's herders, and the cities of the Plain are cast as “negative/Other.”
Abraham's offer to Lot to choose which area of the land he wished, whether it was territory to the left or to the right, is another duality. Lot chooses to move to the Jordan valley, in contrast to the hill country where Abraham would remain.
Even the directions (left/right) are a pair/duality. When Abraham says to choose left/right, he means west/east, this contrary to the interpretation of Nahum Sarna, (Sarna, JPS Torah Commentary–-Genesis, comment on Gen 13:9) who understands the directions as north/south (s'mol / north; yam-in / south); based on the assumption that Abraham was facing the rising sun. Since there are no clear and natural defining borders in the hill country around Bethel, it is even more likely that when he made this statement, Abraham was facing north. The families had traveled north from Egypt to the Negev, and then on to Bethel (Gen 13:1, 3). To the left (west) was the hill country; to the right (east) was the Jordan Valley. Lot chooses the area to the right, and the text says he turns “eastward” (Gen 13:11). The argument that Abraham was facing the north and not the east finds support a few verses on in the text. “After Lot had parted from him,” YHWH says to Abraham, “Raise your eyes and look out from where you are, to the north and south, to the east and west” (Gen 13:14). (In his introduction to The Contemporary Torah, the editor points out that those texts include clues as to how they are to be read. Yet even so, “[t]extual clues are themselves somewhat ambiguous; compiling all the clues still leaves room for interpretation” (Stein: xxxiii). Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob each receive God's promise of heirs and land (Abraham again in Gen 22:17; Isaac in 26:3–4; and Jacob in 28:13–14). In Jacob's case the directions are west, east, north, and south. That the directions begin with west, followed by east, subliminally echo Abraham's “left/right” offer to Lot, even though in the case of Jacob the term used is yamah/west ward.)
Other dualities or pairs include a series of geographic names: Egypt/Negev; Negev/Bethel; Bethel/Ai; Sodom/Gomorrah; Zoar/Egypt; and Canaan/cities of the plain. Mention is made of Canaanites and Perizzites. In addition, Abraham had cattle as well as silver and gold; and both Abraham and Lot had flocks and herds (Gen 13:1,2,3,5,7,10,12,13).
Chapter 14 has its own set of pairs or dualities. Among other examples there are the coalition of five kings versus the coalition of four kings; Abraham and Lot; the kidnapped and the kidnappers; Hobah/Damascus; the rescued Lot and his possessions; the women and the rest of the people; Abraham and Melchizedek; Abraham and King Bera of Sodom; Melchizedek's ritual items of bread and wine; Melchizedek being both a priest and a ruler; reference to persons and possessions (material goods); Abraham's statement about God Most High being the creator of heaven and earth; thread/sandal strap; Abraham's servants, and Abraham's allies (Gen 14:1,2,10–12,15–24). Sarna also draws attention to the fact that “the names of the Canaanite Kings are arranged in two alliterative pairs, Bera-Birsha and Shinab-Shemeber.” (Sarna, Understanding Genesis: 111.) The names of the first pair of these Canaanite kings, Bera of Sodom, and Birsha of Gomorrah, “are evidently pejorative: Bera is based on ra’ ‘evil,’ and Birsha on [resha‘] ‘injustice,’ in symbolic censure of Sodom and Gomorrah” (Speiser: 101).
Melchizedek the king/priest of Salem, as well as Abraham refers to the deity 'Eil ‘Elyon [God most high] who is creator of heaven and earth). (“It is evident that [in ancient times] El and Elyon were two distinct gods” although “the biblical 'el ‘elyon, [is only] used of the One God.” Sarna, JPS Commentary–-Genesis, Excursus, 'El ‘Elyon: 381. The term 'El ‘Elyon appears only in Psalm 78:35. See Sarna's article for a longer discussion of this term.)
Not all of these pairs/dualities are positive versus negative (Us versus Other) but many of them have that quality. Abraham, and then Abraham and his allies, those attacked and kidnapped, are part of the “positive/Us” column. Chedorlaomer and his allies, as well as the kings of Salem and Sodom (in relation to Abraham) are in the “negative/Other” column.
Pairs/dualities in chapter 15
Chapter 15 continues with the pattern of pairs/dualities. There are the two figures of Abraham and God; God's dual promise of being Abraham's shield, and of Abraham's reward being great; Abraham and his presumed inheritor, the steward Dammesek Eliezer.
(Hurrian family law, which was also normative for the patriarchs [recognized] … two types of heir. … One was the … direct heir; and the other was the … indirect heir. … Here, then, [in relation to Dammesek Eliezer] is another instance of Hurrian customs which the patriarchs followed [Speiser: 112].)
There are references to Ur of the Chaldees and the present land; four legged animals for the sacrifice (heifer/goat/ram) and fowl (turtledove/young bird); Abraham and the birds of prey; nighttime and daytime. In addition, there are Abraham's trance and deep dark dread; offspring that will be enslaved, but also freed; the smoking oven and the flaming torch; specific reference to two rivers, that of Egypt, and that of the Euphrates; and Abraham's future offspring versus the ten local tribes mentioned (Kenites, Kenizzites … Jebusites (Gen 15:1–4, 7, 9–14,17–20).
There also are dialogues with God in chapter 15. The first is at night. God took Abraham “outside and said, ‘Look toward heaven and count the stars.'” The second, which is set in the day, culminates late in the afternoon, “as the sun was about to set” (Gen 15:5,12). These “twin promises are logically interconnected and inseparable” (Sarna, JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: 111). “The two scenes are an orchestration of complementary covenantal themes,” explains Robert Alter. In the first, God promises and Abraham accepts this pledge; in the second there is a mutually binding pact. Heirs are promised in the first encounter, land possession in the second. “The first scene highlights dialogue” and God's power, while “the second scene evokes mystery, magic.” (Alter: 64).
The two divine encounters follow a similar internal pattern, creating another duality within the chapter.
Divine self-identification and promise (15:1 // 15:7)
Abram's apprehension (15:2–3 // 15:8)
Reassurance by word and symbolic action (15:4–5 // 15:9–21). [Cotter: 98].
See also Cotter's comment that the three stages of suffering (15:3) are followed by three stages of redemption (15:14–16) (Cotter: 101.)
Here again, while not all the pairs/dualities are cast as positive versus negative (Us versus Other) many fall into those categories. In the “positive/Us” list would be Abraham, Abraham's future offspring, God's promises, God's power, and in the “negative/Other” are Dammesek Eliezer, a childless Abraham, Abraham's trance and deep dark dread, the local inhabitants, and the evocation of mystery and magic.
Connections between chapters 13–14 and chapter 15: external versus internal conflicts
There are connections between the units of chapters 13–14 and 15. There are pairs/dualities between specific items mentioned in chapters 13–14 and specific items mentioned in chapter 15. Abraham's numerous too-many-to-count heirs are compared to the dust of the ground, and subsequently to the stars of the sky (Gen 13:16; 15:5). The heaven is the locale of the stars of the sky, while the earth is the locus for the dust of the ground (Gen 14:19, 22). God is creator of heaven and earth.
In dialogue with Abraham, the deity often uses two simultaneous verbs. In chapter 13 God invites Abraham to raise his eyes, and look (sa na, r'eih) at the land before him, he is invited to “Up, walk about the land” (qum, hithaleikh), indeed, its length and breadth–-and in chapter 15 he is invited to look to the heavens and count the stars (habeit na, s'for) (Gen 13:14,17; 15:5). (For other connections between chapters 14 and 15, see Sarna, Understanding Genesis: 121–22.) In both chapter 13 and 15, when addressing Abraham, God uses the particle “na” (please) in divine speech. (Only “four times in the entire OT does God use the word [na] in addressing a human being. … In each of these four passages God asks somebody to do something that transcends human comprehenson.” The other passages are Genesis 22:2 and Exodus 11:2 (Hamilton: 394).
In chapter 14 ten monarchs are mentioned (the four vs. the five, and the king/priest Melchizedek) and in chapter 15, ten tribes are noted (Kenites, Kenizzites … Jebusites).
There are other connecting links between the units of chapters 13–14 and chapter 15. Both units involve conflicts. The former chapters are about external conflicts, the latter is about internal conflict.
Chapter 13 highlights tensions and external conflicts between Abraham and Lot, either directly or through their proxies, the herders. They separate. Though it would appear that they do so amicably, by chapter 15, as noted earlier, Abraham seems to have written off Lot as his heir. Chapter 14 is rife with external conflicts. There is the rebellion of the five kings against King Chedorlaomer and his allies perhaps from as far away as Mesopotamia. (Sarna, Understanding Genesis, 113. Sarna provides a map of the Battle of the Kings: 114. See also G. von Rad: 176.) In addition, Abraham and his 318 retainers joined by Abraham's allies defeat the northern coalition, at least to the extent that they are able to recover the kidnapped personnel and the material possessions. Though it is not violent external conflict, nonetheless Abraham rebuffs the offer of the king of Sodom to take some of the captured booty.
In chapter 14 Abraham protects his family from an external threat, the four kings; in chapter 15 he deals with another external threat, he needs to chase away the birds of prey. They threaten the ritual items that he has set out for the proper administration of the sacrifice which is connected to the fulfillment of the promise of his future descendants.
Chapter 15 is about internal conflicts, focusing on Abraham's being upset that he does not have a natural heir to receive his property. When YHWH tells the patriarch that the deity will serve as his shield, and that his reward shall be very great, in what amounts to a fit of pique Abraham turns to God and says in effect, “Who cares? I have no offspring. “ Abraham's “despondent scepticism in the face of the assurance of divine protection and the exceptionally great divine gift borders almost on blasphemy” (von Rad: 183). God chooses to ignore the tone of this reply, and patiently tells Abraham that Dammesek Eliezer will not be the recipient of Abraham's wealth, but rather Abraham's own physical heirs, like the stars of the sky, will be immeasurable. The next line explains that Abraham “put his trust in YHWH, who reckoned it to his merit.” Then God claims responsibility for bringing Abraham from Ur of the Chaldeans specifically “to assign this land to you as an inheritance.” The trust/merit mentioned in the previous verse seems short-lived. Again, reflecting his inner doubts, his inner conflict, Abraham turns to God and asks, “How shall I know that I am to possess it?” (Gen 15:6–8). God's answer is a bit opaque. Instead of giving a proof of some sort, God asks Abraham to offer an elaborate ritual gift. Abraham does so and then falls into a deep slumber. Presumably during this episode God reaffirms that this land is meant for Abraham's descendants, and the chapter ends on the note that “On that day YHWH made a covenant” with Abraham.
That there are pairs/dualities is clear in this section: Abraham and God. What is surprising is that Abraham with his “despondent scepticism in the face of the assurance of divine protection” becomes a figure of negativity in contrast to the positive promises from God. Alternatively, in terms of pairs/dualities one might argue that the narrative centers on Abraham and his perceived needs, and the Other is God.
As explained in the introductory remarks of this article, the literal words of the Genesis text, featuring so many pairs/dualities (Us versus Other), often mimics the narrative's description of the tensions and the interactions between these biblical characters.
Theme-/leading-words
A number of important words are repeated in the subsets of 13–14 and then 15. Sarna writes that “Chapter 15 exhibits numerous points of contact and verbal correspondences with the preceding one, a phenomenon that extends throughout the entire narrative and cannot be coincidental” (Sarna, JPS Torah Commentary: Genesis: 112). These serve as theme-words or leading-words.
As mentioned earlier, an important sub-theme of chapters 13 through 15 is who exactly will constitute the next generation. The term “descendant” (zera’) in various forms appears seven times: in 13:15,16 twice, and 15:3,5,13,18).
The word for possessions/wealth (rekhush) appears seven times in various forms in 13:6; 14:11,12,16 twice, 21; and 15:14. (Sarna draws attention to this repeated word, but does not write of its being featured seven times–-Sarna, Understanding Genesis: 121–22).
The king/priest of Salem, Melchizedek refers to God who delivered (miggein) Abraham's foes into the patriarch's hands, and God promises to be Abraham's shield (magein) (Gen 14:20; 15:1). The same root of this word is found in chapter 13 where Lot sees the Jordan Rift Valley as a garden (gan) of YHWH (Gen 13:10) (BDB, [gimmel nun nun]: 170–71).
The term “righteous” (tzedek) is part of the name of the king/priest Melchizedek. It appears in the subsection of chapters 13–14 (14:18) and it appears in a slightly different form as a word by itself in chapter 15 (15:6).
The divine name in chapters 13–14 and chapter 15
Though there are a number of references to the name of the divine in these chapters, including God Most High, 'Eil ‘Elyon, and lord YHWH, [adonai] YHWH, it is YHWH which is the dominant image. In the final redaction of these narratives, the editor featured the term YHWH seven times–-biblically a significant number–-in the combined chapters of 13–14, and seven times in chapter 15. (For the appellation lord YHWH, [adonai] YHWH, see its usage in chapter 15 in The Contemporary Torah, Jewish Publication Society, and the explanation on page 353.) The Tetragrammaton is featured seven times in each subsection: Gen 13:4,10 (twice),13,14,18; Gen 14:22; Gen 15:1,2,4,6,7,8,18.)
Contrasts and Connections between Genesis 13–14 and 15 and prior/later chapters
In these subsections of 13–14 and 15 there are items that can be contrasted and compared to each other, and which are also found in both prior and later chapters. For a detailed description of how certain words and events in these three chapters are either preceded or repeated later in Genesis see Rendsburg: 36–48. Specifically, in terms of Genesis 15:1–21 and 17:1–27, Rendsburg writes of “perfectly parallel sequences of thought, speech, and action” (43). For example, with the exception of the brief mention of the anonymous female captives in chapter 14, these three chapters feature no women. This contrasts with the chapters that bracket this literary unit of 13–14 and 15, namely chapters 12 and 16, which highlight women prominent in Abraham's life: Sarah, and then Sarah-Hagar.
In chapter 12, as in chapter 20, Abraham prospers through his interactions with Pharaoh and Abimelech of Gerar (Gen 12:16; 20:14). This contrasts with Abraham's refusal to take any gift from the King of Sodom, and his sizable donation to the king/priest of Salem.
The issue of Abraham-Sarah's childlessness appears at the end of chapter 11, and is a prominent issue in chapters 12, 16, 17, and 21. Childlessness is a major concern in chapter 13, and even more so in 15.
Conflicts over scarce natural resources are a source of tension between Abraham and Lot's herders (Gen 13). This compares to the later disagreements between Abraham and the servants of Abimelech (Gen 21:25).
As Abraham calls upon God's name in chapter 13, so did he do so in chapter 12, and he will do again in chapter 21. The expressions are virtually the same (12:8; 13:4; 21:33).
Certain events such as communication from God to Abraham, and the promise of inheriting the land, as well as the promise of many descendants, appear in chapter 12, and appear again in succeeding chapters (Gen12:2,7; 17:1–8; 22:15–18). These matters (divine communication/promises) are key factors which unite the material in chapters 13–14 and 15.
Lot, Abraham's nephew, appears in chapter 12 (v 4), and reappears prominently in chapter 19. He is an important figure in the crucial decade portrayed in chapters 13–14 and 15 (in 15 he is conspicuous for his absence, as a possible heir).
Conclusion
The redacted text of Genesis 13–14–15 forms a literary unit in its own right. The text expands our knowledge about Abraham. We see him interact with family and local chieftains. He makes difficult decisions and embarks on a military venture. Yet, the overriding and continuing concern for Abraham is who exactly will be his heir(s). Genesis 13–14–15 addresses that issue, although the initial resolution is delayed until chapter 16. One cannot know the intent of the redactor(s). Yet there are links between these two units (13–14 and the 15). In chapters 13–14–15 there are pairs/dualities in each of its subsections (13–14, and 15) and pairs/dualities that link these sections. Key words or concepts are found in 13–14 and then repeat in 15. The divine appellation in the form of the Tetragrammaton appears seven times in 13–14, and then seven times in 15. Other key words (zera‘, rekhush) also appear seven times in these sections. There also are contrasts and comparisons between the subject matter of 13–14 and 15 and the chapters preceding and following this literary unit.
Abraham marches into history in chapter 12, and in the ensuing years faces many difficult days, yet also great triumphs. The events in these three chapters are not as dramatic as those before or later. Nonetheless they both provide important insights into the behavior and thinking of the first patriarch, but also are connected through their deliberate literary structure.