Esther: Subverting the “Capable Wife”

Abstract

In this article I suggest that an additional reading of the book of Esther sees that work as a subversive sequel to the Capable Wife lauded in Proverbs 31:10–31. Through a comparison of words taken from each of the Proverbs verses, I explain how the redacted version of Esther mines and undermines the earlier work, subtly making fun of such an idealized figure.

Keywords

Esther The Capable Wife Proverbs 31:10–31 mine/undermine subversive sequel overlapping words irony

A central thesis of Judith Klitsner's work Subversive Sequels in the Bible: How Biblical Stories Mine and Undermine Each Other is that in its redacted text, in many cases “Biblical stories mine and undermine each other.” She points out that “the Bible's words carry the gravitas of revered tradition, but are nonetheless subject to an internal process of radical revision that takes place throughout the canon.” She goes on to write that the “subversive sequel adds a dimension of exegesis that is inaccessible through close readings and ordinary inter-textual comparisons alone. By focusing not only on similarities between texts, but on the ongoing revisions of the Bible's stories, the subversive sequel measures the dynamic movement that takes place between one story and another” (Klitsner: xxv, xvi, xxiii). As will be explained below, the book of Esther has direct connections with several earlier works in the Bible, most notably the narrative of Joseph in Genesis, and the career of Daniel, as well as links to Saul/Agag (1 Samuel 15). In addition, the redacted text of Esther mines and undermines the hyperbolic description of the “Capable Wife” lauded in the closing verses of the book of Proverbs. Demonstrating this latter matter is the focus of this article. Before showing how the book of Esther mines and undermines the Capable Wife of Proverbs 31, I present some introductory comments about these two works.

Proverbs’ Capable Wife and Esther

There is a consensus among scholars that, although containing earlier material, the book of Proverbs was codified c. later 6^th – later 4^th century BCE. Many of Proverbs’ chapters are linked to the monarchic period, and the book is associated with Solomon (Prov 1:1; 10:1), although there were possible additions from the period of King Hezekiah; see Proverbs 25. Ascriptions to additional authors appear in chapters 30 and 31. Waltke (2004: 37) suggests that the “final editor … probably lived during the Persian period [later 6^th – later 4^th century BCE] or in the Hellenistic era.” Yoder (232) posits that Proverbs’ compilation took several centuries, with the “framing units of Proverbs 1–9 and 31 … added in the early post-exilic period” (see Clifford: 4). The book of Esther is set in the Persian period, and therefore reflects a much later date for its composition than the book of Proverbs. “Most scholars now date the writing of the Book of Esther to the late Persian or early Greek period, roughly between 400–200 BCE. (An older view saw it as the product of Hellenistic or Maccabean times” [Berlin: xli; cf. Levenson: 26; C. A. Moore: lvii–lviii]). Broadly viewed, the book of Esther reprises earlier biblical themes such as a local Jewish person in exile overcoming difficulties and being raised to high honor by the ruler of the land (Joseph in Egypt, Daniel in Babylonia) as well as direct connections to the early monarchy, specifically 1 Samuel 15, for Mordecai is of the tribe of Benjamin (Esth 2:5), as is King Saul, and Haman is termed an Agagite (Esth 3:1). For other connections to biblical books see Grossman. Yet, in addition to these correlations, the book of Esther in its redacted form also serves as a kind of satiric foil to the woman described at the close of the book of Proverbs. In parodying the virtuous wife there, primarily Esther herself, but also other characters serve as counterparts in these depictions. Proverbs 31:10–31 portrays a very special person. She has been labeled variously as a capable wife (NRSV, NEB, NJPS); a perfect wife (The Jerusalem Bible—Roman Catholic); a worthy wife (NAB—Roman Catholic); a wife of noble character (NIV); a woman of valour (Old JPS); a virtuous woman (KJV); a virtuous wife (NKJV); an accomplished woman (Tanach, The Torah/Prophets/Writings—The Stone Edition); a valiant wife (Waltke 2005: 510); a woman of strength (M. Fox 2009); a diligent woman (Holy Bible/Peshitta). There are other suggestions as well (Kwon).

The description of this woman has also been of interest to feminists who question this biblical depiction. C. R. Yoder observes, the

“Woman of Substance” [the Capable Wife] … embodies not one woman but the desired aspects of many. The idealized portrait assumes, among other things, that the woman is heterosexual, married, and a mother. It is no wonder, then, that while some women say they know a “woman of substance,” far more consider her a “superwoman”—another unrealistic and dehumanizing depiction of women created to entice and promote the values of men [Yoder: 241].

Although she also praises Esther, Laffey writes, “In many ways this text is typically patriarchal. The husband is master of the woman.” Further she writes, that in “contrast to Vashti, who refused to be men's sexual object and her husband's toy, Esther is the stereotypical woman in a man's world” (Laffey: 213, 216; see also M. Fox 2001: 205–09, 211).

The book of Esther has been criticized “as a classic stereotyping of how women shoulder their way to power.” Melba Padilla Maggay challenges that view in her essay “The Power and Potential of Women,” where she suggests that “the author of Esther treats Vashti and Esther with respect…. Far from being treated as an object lesson to self-assertive women, Vashti is held up as a victim of Xerxes’ egotistic instability and the princes’ insecurity…. Shrewd strategy and subtlety rather than open confrontation” (Maggay: 268–69) define Esther's responses to the situation in which she finds herself.

In her description of the book, Adele Berlin explains that Esther is described as a farce, a burlesque, as satire. She explains that on a very conscious and purposeful level, the book of “Esther vulgarizes … the Persian empire and the Persian court.” Berlin writes of low comedy, bawdiness, and ludicrous situations all of which are present in the book itself (Berlin: xix). In like manner, often employing irony, the book of Esther makes fun of the Capable Wife and her primarily passive, but adoring husband. The net result of all of this is that we have a richer treasury of biblical characters, both of men and of women. As Klitsner observes, “biblical women are every bit as diverse as biblical men. Their stories contain elements of majesty and subjugation, of harmony and strife, of godliness and rebellion. As her many layers are peeled away, we will find that woman, like man, defies easy categorization and constricting definition” (Klitsner: xxvi).

The book of Esther is about power and powerlessness. It is about how people, and more specifically women in a subordinate position, nonetheless can exercise power. The Capable Wife is an idealized figure; hers is an impossible and unrealistic one for most women in most situations. Women just do not wield that kind of power in biblical society. The Capable Wife is not how life is. Life, and life for women then, and some would say still today, is figuring out how to work within the system to achieve one's goals.

The Capable Wife is such a rare figure, if such women ever existed. Holding her up as a role model is a pointless activity; it is an insult to reality. It is much wiser—as a biblical woman, or as a Diaspora Jew—to accept

the reality of a subordinate position and learning to gain power by working within the structure rather than against it [for this way, a woman or] the Jew can build a successful and fulfilling life … as Esther does in the court of Ahasuerus. (White: 173).

Esther's narrative is also a Diaspora story. In the book of Esther, the Jews

are in in the position of the weak, as a subordinate population under the dominant Persian government. They must adjust to their lack of immediate political or economic power and learn to work within the system to gain what power they can. In the book of Esther, their role model for this adjustment is Esther. Not only is she a woman, a member of a perpetually subordinate population, but she is … a powerless member of Jewish society…. Esther must learn to make her way among the powerful and to cooperate with others in order to make herself secure…. Esther is not a passive character; she takes steps, within the situation in which she finds herself, to place herself in the best possible position [White: 167].

At first glance, the Capable Wife and the book of Esther seem to be an unlikely matched pair. The Capable Wife section is a staid and sober description of an idealized helpmate for a successful man of means. The commonplace words describing this woman contrast with the elaborate and detailed descriptions in the book of Esther. There is no historical timeframe for the Capable Wife, nor do the verses allude to any specific locale. The couple are anonymized; they have children. The wife works openly and actively; she is a public personage. Her description is limited to twenty-two structured verses, set as an alphabetic acrostic. By contrast, the rollicking drama of Esther has 167 verses.

Esther is one of the strangest works in the Bible. There are male heroes, female heroes, villains, fools, fops, knaves, plodders, plotters, and schemers. A slew of persons are named, many of them with deliberately bizarre, tongue-twisting pronunciations. There are seven eunuchs: Mehuman, Biztha, Harbona, Bigtha, Abagtha, Zethar, and Carkas (Esth 1:10). In addition, there are Ahasuerus’ seven closest advisors: Carshena, Shethar, Admatha, Tarshish, Meres, Marsena, and Memucan (Esth 1:14). There are the ten sons of Haman: Parshandatha, Dalphon, Aspatha, Poratha, Adalia, Aridatha, Parmashta, Arisai, Aridai, and Vaizatha, and their paternal Grandfather Hammedatha (Esth 9:7–10).

The first chapter of Esther is filled with ornate language. The book contains plots and subplots. There are vivid descriptions, written in a style virtually unknown in the Bible with the possible exception of Daniel. Esther purports to be an historical work. Yet, most scholars challenge the book's historicity. Like the Capable Wife, Esther works actively, but unlike her, it is behind the scenes, for she is limited to the royal chambers. For a year, like the other eligible virgins, Esther was trained in the ways of the seraglio, but this was personal grooming, not information about economic practicalities and commercial matters. She ends up as the favored and favorite wife of the king.

Yet, there are certain basic parallels between Proverbs 31:10–31 and the book of Esther. In neither is the word Israel mentioned. Further, in each situation, the characters live their day-to-day outside of a religious/ritual framework. In neither case are there prayers or supplications to the divine. Both texts are devoid of sacrifices; nor are there references to places for ritual offerings. There are no religious functionaries. Esther closes on the call for an annual event to commemorate the success of good over evil, the festival of Purim. That mentioned, the book contains no examples of giving thanks to God. The woman in Proverbs is termed “God-fearing” (v 30); yet she makes no appeal to the deity; neither do characters in the book of Esther. (S. W. Crawford [the former S. A. White in notes above] nonetheless suggests that a religious element is not entirely absent, pointing to fasting as a religious practice in Judaism” [Crawford: 203].) Crawford also notes the hint of God's control of events in Mordecai's statement in Esther 4:14, deliverance will arise for the Jews from another quarter.” (For an even stronger argument for the religious nature of the book of Esther, see Krygier). Yet the Esther-Proverbs 31 connections go far beyond what is not found there, for in verse after verse, there are links between these two works. Below I present the most striking examples of these connections.

Parallels between Proverbs and Esther: Overlapping Words

As we read carefully through Esther it becomes clear that the author or redactor of that work consciously sought to connect the book to the Capable Wife of Proverbs 31:10–31. As Everett Fox has noted, the ancient redactors of the Bible apparently crafted the material they received into an organic whole … in which deep relationships exist between the parts of the whole (E. Fox: xviii; see also xvi.) The Capable Wife as portrayed in the book of Proverbs is an idealized and unrealistic figure. Esther, as portrayed in her book likewise is an idealized and unrealistic figure, as are many of the other major characters of that work. Through the devices of melodrama and irony the author/redactor of Esther adds another level of meaning to that book, one which serves as a conscious link to Proverbs 31:10–31. Through their exaggerated actions, Esther's characters make fun of this earlier idealized personage.

Proverbs 31:10 A capable wife, who can find?

(Prov). This section of Proverbs 31 commences with a rhetorical question, Who can find this special person? The very opening phrase describes the collective sense of who she is, or better, what she is in the mind of the speaker. This woman is the celebrated aishet h ayil. Aishet h ayil mi yimtz'a … a Capable/Perfect/Worthy wife, who can find? This verb yimtz'a/[who] can find is based on the root letters mem-tzadeh-'alef [m-tz-’].

(Esth). In the book of Esther those selfsame three letters appear as “find/found” at crucial times in that narrative. Queen Esther turns to King Ahasuerus and asks, on three separate occasions (Esth 5:8; 7:3; 8:5) Im matz'ati h en – “if I have found favor”. The root occurs two times as hanimtz'a-im (Esth 1:5; 4:16), literally, who are to be found/i.e. who live. The same root surfaces in a different form as vayimatz'ei (Esth 2:23; 6:2), investigated/found. Not only is this verb particularly repeated, it appears seven times in the book of Esther. When she speaks these words (“if I have found [matz'ati] favor”) to Ahasuerus, the plot in Esther moves forward rapidly. On the final occasion that she does so, Haman's downfall is imminent.

31:11 The heart of her husband trusts in her.

(Prov). The opening verse in the Proverbs passage follows directly with reference to the chief benefactor of the wife's capacities: her husband (ba‘al).

(Esth). The relationship between spouses, husbands and wives, is a driving force of the plot of the book of Esther. There are the obvious links of Ahasuerus-Vashti, Ahasuerus-Esther, and Haman-Zeresh. (Secondarily, there is the persuasive suggestion in rabbinic literature that Mordecai married Esther [Babylonian Talmud Megillah 13a]). In addition, there is the stated fear clearly enunciated by the king's own advisor Memucan, that if Vashti's behavior is not punished, word will get out and “all women [will] look with contempt on their husbands … and there will be no end of contempt and wrath!” (Esth 1:17–18). The term “their husbands” (ba'aleihen) comes twice in Esther's first chapter (1:17, 20). The context is in fact a miscommunication between the married couple King Ahasuerus and Queen Vashti. He asks for something, and she probably (or at least possibly) mistakes his intent. Other husband-wife dialogue centers about the specific discourses between Ahasuerus and Esther, each acting in their royal capacity. It is also echoed in the Haman-Zeresh dialogues as will be noted towards the close of this article. In Esther's opening chapter, the fear is that husbands will be disadvantaged by their activist wives. Ironically, it will be a bold and brash activist Esther who persuades her husband Ahasuerus to modify the earlier proclamations that had threatened the lives of the Jewish community. Esther invites Ahasuerus— banquet 1 (Esth 5:4); Esther again invites Ahasuerus—banquet 2 (Esth 5:8); Esther invites him to save her life and those of her people (Esth 7:3); then the queen makes the case to the king for Mordecai's loyalty/support (Esth 8:1); finally, Esther gets Ahasuerus to write new orders (Esth 8:5–8).

31:11 The heart of her husband trusts in her

(Esth). King Ahasuerus, her actual husband, certainly credits Esther with good judgment. Following the dénouement in chapter seven where Haman is effectively and efficiently undone, in chapter eight Ahasuerus by means of letters authorizes orders to be sent to his full kingdom that assertively support Esther's request to save the lives of her people. Likewise, Mordecai, arguably the most notable non-noble male figure in Esther's life, trusts her. He communicates with Esther, and then when she persuasively makes a request of him he willingly obeys her. “Mordecai then went away and did everything as Esther had ordered him” (Esth 4:17).

31:12 She does him good and not harm.

(Prov). In its context in Proverbs the wife variously enhances the economic success of her husband's household. This is indicated in the verses following where she thoughtfully seeks wool and flax; she considers a field and buys it.

(Esth). The word “good” in various forms appears many times in the book of Esther. Ironically, in terms of its being for the economic benefit of the king, it is evil Haman who voices this matter (Esth 3:9). In terms of good referring to one's personal benefit, Esther refers directly to the “good” (well-being) of the king (Esth 5:4, 8) and then for her own well-being (7:3; 8:5; 9:13). Early in the book Esther brilliantly passes on information directly relevant to the well-being of her husband Ahasuerus to avert a plot to assassinate the monarch. This information, garnered through Mordecai's intelligence gathering, saves Ahasuerus’ life (Esth 2:21–23).

31:13 She seeks (darsha) wool and flax.

(Esth). In Esther, we find the selfsame verb, seeks, although in a different declension when Mordecai “sought [doresh, lit. was seeking] the good of his people” (Esth 10:3). This root (dalet-resh-shin) appears only one time in Esther, and one time in the Proverbs section.

31:14 She is like the ships of the merchant (so h er)

(Prov). That root (sin h et resh) will appear again in verse 18, as sa h rah, her merchandise).

(Esth). In Esther, the same root letters appear as the word for a semi-precious stone, perhaps colored stones or alabaster (so h aret—Esth 1:6).

31:14 She brings her food from far away.

(Esth). Esther arranges not one, but two banquets for Ahasuerus and Haman. That Ahasuerus was impressed with the evening is clear because he offers Esther whatever she wishes, “even half of the kingdom.”

31:15 She rises while it is still night and provides food for her household.

(Esth). It is reasonable to assume that the impressive banquets were at night. Even if they were held during the day, they took time to arrange and organize. When Esther respectfully invites the king and Haman to the feast, she explains that she had prepared a meal for them (Esth 5:4). After the first banquet the king cannot sleep at night (Esth 6:1) and during the following day Haman is busy walking before Mordecai who is riding upon the king's horse, as Haman proclaims, “Thus shall it be done for the man whom the king wishes to honor” (Esth 6:11). The second banquet follows this daytime activity.

31:15 Her servant girls (na'aroteha).

(Prov). The Capable Wife has young female servants (na'arot), and she supervises their activities.

(Esth). Young virgins and young servant girls are mentioned in singular or plural form no fewer than twelve times in Esther (Esth 2:2, 3, 7, 8, 9 [thrice], 12 [twice], 13; 4:4, 16). Esther herself is described in this manner: “the girl was fair and beautiful” (v'hana'arah y'fat to'ar v'tovot mar'eh). Esther is assigned seven na'arot (Esth 2:9). Esther's description as “fair and beautiful/ y'fat to'ar v'tovot mar'eh”(Esth 2:7) has additional aspects. It is very similar to the description of Joseph (Gen 39:6), and Joseph's mother, Rachel (Gen 29:17). Rachel, like Esther, works behind the scenes (the stealing of her father Laban's teraphim—Gen 31.) Further, this young, fair and beautiful woman is implicitly compared to the probably more matronly Capable Wife, of whom there is (coincidentally, pointedly?) no description.

31:16 She considers a field and buys

(Prov). (… and buys vatika h ehu, [lit. takes] from the root letters lamed-kuf- h et) it. In Proverbs the woman demonstrates her commercial power and expertise.

(Esth). That selfsame root (lamed-kuf- h et) appears six times in the book of Esther, four times referring to her (2:7, 8, 15, 16). Yet in contrast to the enterprising Capable Wife, Esther is in a subservient position. She is adopted (tak-en/l'ka h ah—Esth 2:7) by her older cousin Mordecai, for her parents have died. As one of the beautiful young virgins, she is taken/vatilaka h (Esth 2:8) into the king's palace to study the arts of seduction. In the other two cases, quite ironically the verb appears prominently in a dialogue between Ahasuerus and Haman where the latter is instructed to take Mordecai and to honor him (Esth 6:10, 11).

31:16 With the fruit of her hands she plants a vineyard.

(Prov). The Capable Wife sees to it that a vineyard is acquired (planted). She does not plant it herself, this is metaphoric language.

(Esth). In saving the lives of her fellow-Jews, metaphorically at least, Esther ensures the future of her people, she in that sense plants a vineyard. In the book of Esther there are lavish banquets, clearly where wine flows generously (Esth 1:7, 10).

31:17 She makes her arms (z'ro'oteha) strong.

(Prov). The root of this word arms is zayin-resh-'ayin.

(Esth). That selfsame root can mean seed/descendant. In this latter form it appears several times in Esther, including its being literally the last word in the book (6:13; 9:27, 28, 31;10:3). Here again, there is a sense of irony. It highlights the fact that Mordecai belongs to the same tribe as King Saul, he is a Benjaminite. Haman is an Agagite. Each man (Mordecai/Haman) is the seed/descendant of or is related to a monarch. At the conclusion of the book, not only Haman, but his ten sons are dispatched, while the seed of the Jews are prominently and recognizably saved.

31:18 Her lamp does not go out at night …

(Esth). Queen Esther and her maidens respectfully fasted for three days and nights. The Capable Wife's lamp not going out is meant as an image for industriousness or a strong commitment to the matters at hand. Here again, there are natural parallels between the Esther and Proverbs verses.

31:19 She puts (lit. sends – shil h a) her hands to the distaff.

(Prov). The word also appears in verse 20.

(Esth). This verb appears seventeen times in numerous forms in Esther (1:22; 2:21, 3:6, 13; 4:4; 5:10; 6:2; 8:7, 10; 9:2, 10, 15, 16, 19, 20, 22, 30).

31:19 Her hands hold the spindle.

(Esth). Esther certainly spins a bold and brash plot to entrap Haman.

31:20 She opens her hand to the needy (evyon).

(Prov). In Proverbs, it suggests that the woman herself is involved in this action.

(Esth). As that word appears once in the Capable Wife section of Proverbs 31, so it appears once in Esther (9:22). In Esther the reference to the poor is more generic.

31:22 Her clothing is fine linen [shesh] and purple

[argaman].

(Prov). These descriptions imply that the Capable Wife's family are well to do.

(Esth). Esther's clothing is royal apparel when, unannounced, courageously and daringly she goes to visit the king (Esth 5:1). Fine linen [shesh] and purple [argaman] are part of the description of the royal banqueting halls (Esth 1:6). Towards the end of the book, once he is raised to high honor, Mordecai is richly garbed in special clothes. “Then Mordecai went out from the presence of the king, wearing royal robes of blue and white, with a great golden crown and mantle of linen and purple [argaman]” (Esth 8:15).

Mordecai's outfit reminds us of both Joseph and Daniel, two other Jewish courtiers who achieved high standing in foreign courts…. [Joseph is dressed in robes of fine linen (shesh) and wears a gold chain around his neck (Gen 41:42)]. Daniel is clothed in purple [arg'van'a] and has a gold chain placed around his neck (Dan 5:7, 29) [Berlin: 79].

31:23 Her husband is known in the city gates [sh'arim], taking his seat [b'shivto] among the elders.

(Prov). In Proverbs the husband is a passive character. While he praises his wife in verse 28, he is very much a background figure.

(Esth). In Esther, Mordecai, by contrast is a prominent character, one central to the plot. He sits at the king's gate (Esth 2:19, 21; 5:13; 6:10). He is seen there again (Esth 3:2, 3; 4: 2 [twice]; 5:9; 6:12. That verb “sitting” also appears in different forms involving several characters in Esther 1:2; 3:15; 5:1; 9:19.

31:24 She makes linen garments and sells them.

(Prov). The root of the word sells (mem-khaf-resh) appears twice in the Capable Wife section of Proverbs 31 (vv 10 and 24).

(Esth). That root appears again in Esther, “We had been sold” (7:4—twice).

31:24. She supplies (i.e. sends to) the merchant with sashes.

(Esth). At the close of the book Esther and Mordecai wisely confer, and certain items are sent to the wider Jewish community (Esth 9:29–31).

31:25 Strength and dignity are her clothing [literally, she is dressed , l'vushah].

(Esth). Clothes, and what one wears often bespeak volumes. Variations of this word appear many times in Esther (Esth 4:1, 2, 4; 5:1; 6:8 [twice], 9 [twice], 10, 11 [twice]; 8:15). Although early on Mordecai is dressed in shabby sack-cloth—an image which conveys neither strength nor dignity—later he will be attired in the king's robes, and paraded through Susa. As noted above, towards the close of the book he will be dressed in argaman/purple.

31:26 She opens her mouth with wisdom.

(Esth). Esther gives both good advice to Mordecai and Ahasuerus (Esth 4:15–16; 8:5–6).

31:26 The teaching of kindness ( h esed) is on her tongue.

(Esth). The word h esed is found twice in Esther chapter 2 (vv 9 and 17). It refers to how Esther was regarded, first by Hegai, the chief of the Persian seraglio, and then by her new husband, Ahasuerus. The word h esed is very difficult to de-fine. This is reflected in various translations for these verses. Favor/devotion (NRSV); special favour/kindness (NEB); favor/favor (NJPS, Holy Bible/Peshitta, NKJV); favour/approval (Jerusalem Bible;); favor/benevolence (NAB); kindness/favour (KJV; Old JPS); favor/approval (NIV).

31:27 She looks well to the ways of her household

(Esth). Esther protects not only the maidens who are with her, she noticeably protects and saves her wider household— her co-religionists.

31:27 She does not eat (to'khel) the bread of idleness.

(Prov). In Proverbs the lack of eating is used metaphorically.

(Esth). By contrast in Esther the issue of not eating is quite literal; she and the Jewish community in Susa observe a fast, neither eating or drinking for several days. Here again a root appears once in Proverbs 31, the Capable Wife section, and once in Esther (to'khlu—4:16).

31:28 Her children rise up and call her happy.

(Prov). The Capable Wife's children praise her, they take note of her emotions.

(Esth). The word for “son of” or “sons of” appears thirteen times in the book of Esther. (Esth 2:5; 3:1, 10; 5:11; 8:5, 10; 9:10 [twice], 12, 13, 14, 24, 25). In Proverbs the Capable Wife's family notably compliment her; the Esther connection is persuasively ironic. The verse could have said only that her children call her happy. Instead it says the children “rise up” and call her happy. Towards the close of the book of Esther, Haman's sons are killed. This is mentioned twice in chapter nine. The first time all ten sons’ names are listed, and then later in the chapter the form of their death is explained: they were hanged (Esth 9:7–10; 14.) When the Capable Wife's children “rise up” and then Haman's sons are hanged, we see both a literal and a figurative example of gallows humor.

31:28 Her husband … praises her.

(Prov). In Proverbs the passive spouse offers tributes to his wife.

(Esth). Ahasuerus’ eagerness to please his wife has been noted above.

31:29 Many women have done excellently [ h ayil].

(Prov). Proverbs repeats that word from verse 10. There, in v 10, translations for h ayil included capable/perfect/worthy/noble character/valour/virtuous, valiant, and a woman of strength. Here in v 29 the word h ayil is also translated variously, as a few examples show: excellently (NRSV); well (NJPS); noble things (NIV); proven worth (NAB).

(Esth). H ayil is often used in the Bible in a military context, and that is how it how it appears in Esther, although with different vowels. In chapter one it means “army” (Esth 1:3, the army of Persia and Media), and in chapter eight again as an armed force (8:11).

(Prov). [In Proverbs 31] the poem's use of military imagery in the domestic sphere presents the godly wife “as a spiritual heir of Israel's ancient heroes” and “a champion for those around her by her diligent application of wisdom.” In short, “the valorous wife is a heroic figure used by God to do good…just as the ancient judges and kings did good for God's people by their martial exploits” [Waltke 2005, quoting E. Moore: 517].

Clifford (277) writes of the Capable Wife's “heroic courage, strength, and wisdom.”

As noted earlier, M. Fox translates h ayil as “strength.” He writes that the Capable Wife's “primary strength is in [her] character … [in the] manifestations of her focus, selflessness, and determination” (M. Fox: 891). Ironically, Fox rejects the term “valor” for the woman because he feels that “the qualities listed here do not include courage of the sort usually called valorous.” He does note that terms “with military connotations are used” (M. Fox: 891; see also 893) and that the proverb praises “her indefatigable energy” (M. Fox: 891).

(Esth). Esther also displays indefatigable energy. Esther's courage and cunning depict her capabilities as a strategist, as a designing woman in the best sense of that word; she is a heroic figure, who acts daringly. This too, links her to the Capable/ Perfect/Worthy wife.

31:30 Charm [ h en] is deceitful.

(Prov). The Hebrew word h en also has wide-ranging translations.

(Esth). In chapter two of Esther it means admired (v 15) and favor (v 17). In chapter five, twice h en translates as favor (vv 2, 8), as it is also in Esther 7:3 and 8:5. Queen Esther finds favor in the eyes of King Ahasuerus, a matter crucial to the narrative, a particularly and notably ironic contrast to the use of the word in Proverbs, where charm is deceitful.

31:31 Let her works praise her in the city gates [sh'arim.]

(Prov). The city gates are a euphemism for the public arena, where important events take place.

(Esth). Reference to gates come eleven times in the book of Esther (Esth 2:19, 21; 3:2, 3; 4:2 [twice], 6; 5:9, 13; 6:10, 12. All of them feature Mordecai at the king's gate. Mordecai overhears the plot against Ahasuerus there, and it is there that he refuses to bow down to Haman. Likewise, it is at the king's gate where Haman meets Mordecai richly dressed in the royal robes and symbolically seated upon the royal horse.

31:31 Let her works praise her.

(Esth). The annual festival of Purim and the reading of the Megillat Esther admirably accomplish this.

Parallels between other Figures in Esther and Proverbs

In addition to the principal figures of Ahasuerus, Esther, Haman, and Mordecai, Haman's wife Zeresh and his sons are also mentioned in Esther. The figure of Zeresh appears four times (Esth 5:10, 14; 6:13—twice). In chapter five, she is summoned by Haman, as are his friends. He speaks of his great wealth and how he is being honored by the royals. Haman also discloses his great aggravation with Mordecai. It is Zeresh then who comes forward with the suggestion that gallows be erected to execute Mordecai (vs. 14).

(Esth/Prov). Like the woman in Proverbs, in chapter 5 Zeresh is someone who plans for the future (“She considers a field and buys”—31:16). Little does Zeresh know that the very plan she suggests, ironically will be the instrument of Haman's execution (“So they hanged Haman on the gallows that he had prepared for Mordecai” [Esth 7:10]). Further, Zeresh in chapter 6 unknowingly but correctly predicts Haman's downfall. “If Mordecai … is of the Jewish people, you will not prevail against him” (Esth 6:13). Here, like the Capable Wife in Proverbs, she has her husband's interests at heart, but again this is a sardonic version of the Capable Wife. Her words are a kind of warning to Haman. Haman either fails to comprehend them, or he thoughtlessly, and disastrously for him and for his family, dismisses her comments.

Conclusion

Both the setting of Proverbs 31:10–31 and that of Esther are secular. The book of Esther momentarily departs from its worldly, non-religious nature when it enjoins the celebration of what would become the annual festival of Purim. The book of Esther contains many messages. Among them are that Jewish survival in the non-Jewish world necessitates an active identification with the Jewish community, and that Jews at all times must exercise courage and vigilance. On another level, the author of Esther, and certainly the final redactors, unquestionably linked the characters of Mordecai-Haman to the Saul-Agag narrative in the book of Samuel. Further, there were the clear affinities between the story of Esther and the Joseph and Daniel material found earlier in the Bible. Then, in the spirit of mining and undermining earlier stories, the authors/redactors inserted another layer of understanding of Esther, namely as a subversive sequel to Proverbs 31:10–31. They made choices in wording that linked the book, often ironically, to the closing verses of the Book of Proverbs. These connections are noted through the conscious overlapping of certain vocabulary and actions which shows that in its received form, Esther is also meant to remind us of that unique woman in Proverbs.

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