Four Women in Samuel Confront Power—Part 1: Contemporary Views

Abstract

Abigail of Maon, the Medium of Endor, the Wise Woman of Tekoa, and the Wise Woman of Abel: at personal risk, all dared to confront power. In part 1 of this article contemporary scholars comment on their actions. Part 2, to be published in our next issue (BTB 51/2—May, 2021), discusses their appearance in the Aramaic Bible, the Targum Jonathan; and in the writings of both the ancient Rabbis and the Church Fathers.

Keywords

Abigail Books of Samuel David Joab Medium of Endor Saul Wise Woman of Abel Wise Woman of Tekoa

In the biblical books of 1–2 Samuel on four occasions spread throughout these passages, women put their lives at risk as they dare to confront power. They are Abigail of Maon to rebellious David; the Medium of Endor to King Saul; the Wise Woman of Tekoa to King David; and the Wise Woman of Abel to Joab, King David’s general. The details surrounding their specific situations differ considerably from case to case. Likewise, from what little the Bible tells about their backgrounds, it is likely that they all came from different social classes. Nonetheless, each example fits within a broad definition of speaking truth to power. Following brief introductory remarks including an explanation of the meaning of the phrase “Speaking Truth to Power,” I present a summary of these narratives. This is followed by a discussion on how contemporary scholars view these situations. Thus part 1 of a set of two linked articles. In part 2 I shall discuss how these chapters were rewritten in the Aramaic Bible translation, the Targum Jonathan. In part 2, I also deal with how the ancient Rabbis, through midrash, and the Church Fathers through homilies and polemics referred to these chapters in Samuel.

These women in order of presentation are Abigail of Maon, the wife of Nabal (1 Samuel 25); the Medium of Endor (1 Samuel 28); the Wise Woman of Tekoa (2 Samuel 14); and the Wise Woman of Abel (2 Samuel 20). [Note: The Medium of Endor often incorrectly is termed the “witch of Endor.” See below.] Abigail of Maon interacts with pre-monarchic David, then a rebel on the run since he is distanced from King Saul. The Medium of Endor is visited by King Saul, who is seeking Divine counsel via the recently deceased prophet Samuel. The Tekoite has come to King David ostensibly to seek resolution to her family’s blood vengeance problem. The Abelite representing her community which is threatened with immediate destruction is in dialogue with Joab, King David’s foremost general.

These stories both have female characters who inadvertently find themselves in a context of violence and who seek to deal with the effects, or the potential effects, of violence on their communities. These …stories vividly capture some of the very different ways in which women in the [Hebrew Bible] are resisting the violence of war that has the potential to utterly destroy their families and the communities in which they live [Claassens: 3–4].

In its context Claassens’ direct reference is to Abigail and to Rizpah, who appears in 2 Samuel 21. Her descriptions, however, apply also to the other women considered here.

Speaking Truth to Power

The phrase “Speaking Truth to Power” has a lineage that reaches back in time. More specifically in contemporary times it is generally associated with a Quaker pamphlet penned in the 1950s, “Speak Truth to Power: a Quaker Search for an Alternative to Violence.” That document said in part,

We speak to power in three senses: To those who hold high places in our national life and bear the terrible responsibility of making decisions for war or peace. To the American people who are the final reservoir of power in this country and whose values and expectations set the limits for those who exercise authority. To the idea of Power itself, and its impact on Twentieth Century life [AFSC, “Speak Truth to Power”: iv].

A generally accepted definition of the phrase understands this as a kind of non-violent political tactic used by individuals or groups challenging the common understanding, or the propaganda of governments which are seen to be in some fashion oppressive or authoritarian. In terms of how that phrase applies to the four women under discussion, the statement which follows describes well their situations. “ ‘Speak truth to power’ means speaking what we believe to be true to someone in authority who might take it as a criticism or be offended and who has the power to punish us in some way” (Gurteen). Speaking truth to power often brings negative consequences for the speaker. It can be dangerous. Fortunately in all of these instances the women avoided any harm to their selves.

In the period under discussion, about 1000 bce, Israelite society is again going through a major time of transition. The era of the charismatic judges/military leaders is closing. The monarchy is just taking shape. Life in ancient Israel is both androcentric and bound by patriarchal norms. These are the accepted behaviors both in Israel and more broadly in the culture of the wider area. Yet even so, a careful reading of the biblical text shows that there are women who command respect, who hold positions of honor, at the very least within the situations in which they find themselves. They speak with authority. They speak truth to power; they dare to confront males who ostensibly could cause them harm.

Claudia Camp describes the Wise Women in 2 Samuel as “figures who stand so boldly before a king and a general.” Referring to the Tekoite, but this description easily fits the Abel woman as well, she “seems accustomed to making and delivering such judgments.” As the Woman of Abel’s “authority is without question,” so this is true of the Woman of Tekoa. Camp writes of their “persuasive counsel, presented in a compelling manner” (Camp: 196, 197, 199).

Earlier Abigail and the Medium of Endor, each in her own fashion also appears boldly before a commanding male figure. For the former it is a man who is literally armed and dangerous. In time he will become a ruler. The latter woman deals with an actual king, no doubt armed and dangerous. The presentations of Abigail and the Medium of Endor both show women accustomed to making and delivering judgments. They speak with authority; their persuasive counsel, especially given the contexts in which they find themselves, is presented in a compelling manner.

That the examples of these four women became part of the monarchic history and that their memories were preserved in the books of Samuel in and of itself is a statement that underscores the respect shown at least certain women of that day. As will be noted below, Abigail of Maon is characterized as intelligent, at least quasi-prophetic, a smooth-talker, and a woman who has her own best interest in mind. Those qualities to a great extent are also true of the other three women discussed in this study. Yet for all their presence and their presence of mind, they are ever aware of the androcentric patriarchal world in which they live. All four refer to themselves as a handmaid in relation to the man to whom they are addressing their words, either using the word amah or shifha. Abigail uses both words, amah (25:24, [twice], 28, 31, 41, and the synonym shifha in v 27. The medium uses shifha (28:21, 22); the Tekoite, shifha several times in chapter 14, vv 6, 7, 12, 15, 17, and 19. She uses amah twice, in 15 and 16. The Abelite uses amah (20:17). These are not throw-away terms. They are used consciously, carefully, and concisely. They literally reflect the power differential between these women and their male interlocutors.

The two Wise Women, respectively of Tekoa and Abel, are an established couplet simply by virtue of their each being termed a wise woman (isha hakhama—2 Samuel 14:2; 20:16). In addition, P. K. McCarter suggests links with the figure of Abigail in 1 Samuel 25. “Abigail, who, though not called a wise woman, is praised for her ‘good intelligence’ ([tovat sekhel] I Sam 25:3) and ‘judgment’ ([ta‘maykh] I Sam 25:33).” He writes that Abigail’s “speech in I Sam 25:24–31 …exhibits a number of points of contact” with the Wise Woman of Tekoa, and that the “same can be said of the speeches of the wise woman of Abel of Beth-maacah in II Samuel 20:16–19” (McCarter 1984: 345; see Tsumura: 587).

While the biblical text features no such adjectival descriptions for the Medium of Endor, for she is neither specifically called wise nor of good intelligence, nonetheless she displays good intelligence and she uses her words wisely. In this context, that this woman is not portrayed by the biblical writer for her good intelligence or her being wise makes perfect sense: she is a medium, which is a profession or calling specifically forbidden in Israelite society (Deut 18:10–12; Exod 22:17). As will be noted below, nevertheless she is presented very respectfully.

Text and Context

Abigail of Maon (1 Samuel 25)

The biblical text in 1 Samuel offers a fair amount of information about Nabal, Abigail’s husband. We also learn about her socio-economic situation, descriptions that are largely absent concerning the other women. Abigail is married to a wealthy landowner who possesses herds made up of thousands of sheep and a thousand goats. In addition, Abigail is complimented as being intelligent and good-looking, this in contrast to Nabal who is termed a hard man and an evildoer (vv 2–3). At this point in his life, David, who once was favored by Saul is now estranged from him. David has become persona non grata. Alongside several hundred of his followers, David is living off the land. He supports his group by extending “his protection to the region’s inhabitants—farmers and shepherds—against outlaws, services for which he demands payment (even though he was never asked to perform them)” (Shinan & Zakovitch: 250). David sends a number of his men to Nabal, suggesting that the latter acknowledge his efforts. Nabal rudely rejects their request and labels David as a nobody. “Who is David? Who is the son of Jesse? …Should I then take my bread and …meat …and give them to men who come from I don’t know where?” (1 Sam 25:10–11). Nabal is insolent, “abusive and humiliating. According to him, David had no self-worth. Instead of the blessing he expected, David received a curse (1 Sam 25:6, 10–12)” (Mulzac: 49). Of course, there are different ways to consider Nabal’s actions. Is he rebelling against the authority of the local warlord of the area, i.e. David who is forcing his “protective services” on Nabal? Or is Nabal loyal to Saul and therefore a class antagonist against David and the debtors? A source suggests that “Nabal’s refusal to fork over the requested gifts seethed with class superiority and insolence” (Halbertal & Holmes: 60).

Upon learning of Nabal’s dismissive response David takes several hundred of his men and marches forth. He intends to wipe out Nabal and all of his property. Fortunately one of Nabal’s young men goes straight to Abigail. He tells her that David and his followers had done a good job safeguarding Nabal’s property; they were a protective shield. Wasting no time, Abigail acts swiftly. Without a word to her husband she sends gifts to David, generous provisions of bread, meat, and fruit (vv 18–19). She then meets with David and both badmouths her husband and flatters David outrageously. Initially throwing herself at his feet, and unquestionably putting herself in danger, Abigail speaks her truths. “Courageously approaching the bloody-minded band …Abigail’s shrewdly crafted speech” is very effective (Halbertal & Holmes: 60, 61). She urges David to reconsider his plan, she tells David that God has great plans for him. Do not spill blood, she advises. She ends her remarks with the suggestion that when David prospers, he should remember her (vv 25–31). David bows to her advice and retreats. Abigail returns home. The next day she informs Nabal what she has done; he seems to have a stroke and soon dies. David then sends for her and she becomes his second wife.

The Medium of Endor (1 Samuel 28)

(Note: although 1 Samuel 28 deals with Saul with the Medium of Endor, from v 3 to the end of the chapter it appears to be misplaced by the Redactor. It follows more naturally after chapters 29 and 30.) Few details address the socio-economic status of the Medium of Endor, but it is clear that she lives on the edges of society. In his position of ruler, Saul gave orders to clear the land from those who have recourse to ghosts and spirits. The woman’s reputation is that she can consult with spirits who have died. Even for her to admit to her calling is to pronounce her own death sentence. In the meantime, Saul’s army are facing a large Philistine force. Saul inquires direction from God, but Samuel has died recently; so that avenue is cut off. Saul is without divine protection (vv 4–6). Desperate to find help, Saul asks his courtiers to find someone who can communicate with the dead. Wearing disguises, Saul and a couple of men go to Endor. He pleads with the medium to consult with someone whose name he will tell her.

No fool, she is wary of being entrapped. She denies her ability to do this. Saul takes an oath to protect her. He wants her to bring up the spirit of the departed Samuel. When she accedes she suddenly understands that it is none other than Saul who is before her. Samuel addresses Saul, informing him that he will die on the next day. Overwhelmed with this news, Saul falls senseless to the ground. Initially resistant to her call to eat something to maintain his strength, Saul eventually eats food that she prepares. Although aware of his superior position in relation to her, courageously she dares to say, “Your handmaid listened to you; I took my life in my hands and heeded the request you made of me. So now you listen to me” (vv 21–22).

The Wise Woman of Tekoa (2 Samuel 14)

Much has changed since the death of Saul. David has ascended to the throne and ruled for many years. He has several wives and numerous children. His son Amnon, rapes his own half-sister Tamar (2 Sam 13). Choosing a strategic moment, Absalom, Tamar’s full brother, kills Amnon; he then needs to escape and chooses to go to a neighboring kingdom, that of his maternal grandparents. Several years pass. David wishes to reconcile with Absalom but cannot figure out how to do this. Joab, David’s chief general, then devises a plan. He reaches out to a “wise woman” (isha hakhama) from Tekoa and coaches her what to do. The woman pretends to be in mourning. She purports to be a widow grieving over the death of one son and the potential death of her other son who had killed his brother. This would leave her heirless (vv 4–7). She offers this scenario to David who promises to intervene on her request. She then dares to suggest that by effectively seeing that Absalom remains in exile, David is in a similar position to her (vv 12–16). David understands that he has been duped, but he does not take umbrage, for he discerns that Joab’s hand is behind this ruse. In terms of her background or socio-economic status, the text is silent. Yet she speaks with authority, and offers what appears to be a “wise saying” of the time, “We must all die; we are like water that is poured on the ground and cannot be gathered up” (2 Sam 14:14a).

The Wise Woman of Abel (2 Samuel 20)

Many years pass by. Ungratefully Absalom leads a coup against his father David, but this rebellion eventually is unsuccessful, and Absalom subsequently is killed. Sometime later a villain, a Benjaminite, Sheba ben Bikhri, leads a different revolt against David, but this too is unsuccessful. Sheba tries to escape, taking refuge in a town, Abel of Beth-maacah. Joab soon lays siege to that community. He starts to batter its walls. There is no description of the socio-economic status of the Wise Woman (again, an isha hakhama). Still, she clearly is someone held in high esteem, a person who is in a position of authority, for she represents her community. She stands on the town’s ramparts and calls out to Joab. The two of them negotiate over the matter at hand. The Wise Woman puts it to Joab that he should not act hastily. He appears open to this counsel. She says that there is no need to destroy the whole town, killing innocent people because they simply are living there. The matter is resolved; Sheba is killed and his head is thrown over the wall. Joab and his army then retreat.

Contemporary comments on these four narratives

Abigail of Maon

Contemporary scholars generally have high praise for Abigail. In a classic essay, “The Pleasures of Her Text,” feminist scholar A. Bach addresses Abigail’s “subversive” actions, her “determination,” and

her wise good-sense to control her life verbally while appearing socially dependent and compliant…. [While she calls] herself “maidservant,” amateka or shiphateka, synonyms delineating a lower-class woman of no power, Abigail reflects the opposite in her actions…. Throughout her speech, Abigail continues to emphasize a power hierarchy, repeatedly calling David adoni [my master] and herself amateka/shiphateka [maidservant]. While her actions show that she is accustomed to controlling situations, her words assure David that she is handing over power to him. Abigail’s cloying humility is a result of her belief in her own words of prophecy…. Abigail steps outside the bounds of convention [Bach].

For Bach, Abigail is a heroic woman, wise, crafty, and in control of the situation in which she finds herself. On the other hand, the Womanist scholar W. Gafney sees a very different person in the figure of Abigail. Gafney’s perspective is based on her making certain assumptions about Nabal. The text in 1 Samuel 25:3 terms him as “a hard man and an evildoer” (NJPS); “harsh and ungenerous” (NAB); or “surly and mean” (NRSV, NIV, NEB). Gafney describes Nabal as “a drunken, boorish, likely abusive husband,” a man who “has violated the cultural code of hospitality” (Gafney: 205). That Nabal is no hero figure is clear, and his drunkenness in the post-shearing season is undeniable (v 36). Yet it is a stretch to say that his dismissal of David’s request for “protection money” breaches a code of hospitality. Likewise, though he may have been one, there is no scriptural basis for labeling him an abusive husband. Nonetheless Gafney regards Abigail as a self-abasing sexually abused woman. “Abigail’s generosity and submission is a last-ditch, desperate gamble masked in charm,” explains Gafney. “Abigail may have learned how to negotiate with a violent man in her own home” (Gafney: 206).

P. K. McCarter suggests connections with the “proverbial ‘stalwart woman’ [eishet hayil in Prov 31:10] …who ‘opens her mouth with wisdom’ (Prov 31:26)” and because of Abigail David “learns (or at least is reminded of) the importance of self-control and reliance upon Yahweh” (McCarter: 1980: 401).

McCarter goes on to write of “the excellent qualities of one of David’s wives …her ‘good intelligence’ (v 3) and counselling skills” (402; see Klein: 249–51). Through her actions David avoids redress by blood/bloodguilt (see 1 Sam 25:26, 33). Avoiding unnecessary bloodshed is also a vital part of the narrative in the fourth example under consideration, the episode of the Wise Woman of Abel. Her negotiations with Joab in 2 Samuel 20 results in a similar goal. Another scholar suggests that Abigail is intelligent and resourceful enough to handle this matter. She commands respect and authority in their household. At a crucial moment one of their household’s young men comes to Abigail—not to Nabal—and says to Abigail that she should “consider carefully what you should do” (25:17—You: 186). J. D. Levenson writes that Abigail’s “argument is a rhetorical masterpiece” (Levenson: 19).

Abigail’s speech, like her “behavior highlights most women’s preference for resolving conflict through persuasion rather than physical violence, knowing that cooperation is preferable to brute force.” Indeed, “Abigail’s plea to David is the Hebrew Bible’s longest single quotation attributed to a woman …her argument relies on the art of flattery, one of the oldest tools of civilized discourse. Her speech allows David time to reconsider his wish for revenge born in a flash of fury” (Rosenblatt: 154, 157).

These general praises of Abigail notwithstanding, others are somewhat more tempered in their evaluations of Abigail. W. Brueggemann notes that she “shows her extraordinary boldness, common sense, and capacity for effective language [however she] …is playing for high stakes: namely, her own well-being and future” (Brueggemann: 178, 179). In like manner, B. J. M. Johnson suggests that the figure of Abigail is exaggerated. She clearly is the antithesis of her husband Nabal, for while she is intelligent and charming, he is a fool and a hard man. Abigail “is beautiful and intelligent. She is hospitable. She is apparently at least quasi-prophetic. But she is also a smooth-talker. She is also at least a little vindictive. She has her own best interest in mind” (Johnson: 8).

The Medium of Endor

The Medium of Endor frequently but inappropriately is termed the “Witch of Endor.” This designation is found in scholarly works as well as in numerous Bible translations which contain rubrics that describe the section which follows. The New International Version (NIV), the New American Bible (NAB), and the Jerusalem Bible (JB) all incorrectly term her a witch. The woman of Endor is not a witch, “for a witch practices black magic, that is, attempts to influence the future rather than just divine it. The [woman] of Endor is more properly a medium or necromancer (one who divines by means of the dead)” (Brown: 206). In the 18^th century William Whiston translation of Josephus, Whiston uses the word necromancer for the woman. In the Jewish Women’s Archive article by T. W. Overholt, the term used is the Medium of Endor. Halbertal and Holmes, following McCarter, use the term ghostwife (63–66; see also Nunnally-Cox, 65–66). Yet even on the face of it, it is quite extraordinary that the medium is a female. Ancient Israel’s priesthood was entirely male, and while women may have been involved in secondary, less public ways, the gender of the necromancer while far from impossible (Exodus 22:17 does say “You shall not tolerate a sorceress”), it still is surprising. The author of the book of Samuel no doubt was conflicted. On one hand there were the previously mentioned prohibitions in both Exodus and Deuteronomy, never mind Saul’s expelling such people. At the same time Saul not only goes to seek her help, she successfully brings up Samuel’s spirit. Coincidentally, as will be noted in the second part of these linked articles—in the discussion of the ancient rabbis’ take on the Medium of Endor—the rabbis “accepted the testimony of the verses as given and did not question the ability of mediums to create a real link with the dead” (Simon: 287, n. 7). These women mediums are associated with wizards, their male counterparts. “Their business is to call up the dead.” The text is absent of any negative overtones.

The Medium of Endor is a minister of religion, and a good one. She understands the need of the one who comes to her, she takes charge of the situation, she does what she can for him…. All this she does for her bitter enemy, the one who would expel her and her colleagues from home and livelihood [Jobling: 186, 189; see McCarter 1980: 420, and Auld: 329].

U. Simon observes that while Samuel the prophet “rejects Saul with both hands,” the Medium of Endor by way of contrast “comforts him with equal determination” (Simon: 75). Further, as Vanessa Lovelace points out, the “necromancer is not condemned by Dtr [the Deuteronomist, the Deuteronomic Historian(s)] here” (Lovelace: 96). By contrast later in Chronicles Saul is strongly censured for his turning to the medium (1 Chron 10:13–14). When the necromancer agrees to bring up Samuel’s spirit she is taking a great chance. Who knows how her visitor will react? Saul may be the lawmaker, but undoubtedly he is also the lawbreaker. He holds strength and power. It would not have been unlikely, following his disappointing encountger with Samuel, that Saul would have taken out his disquiet by killing her. Instead she dares to speak truth to power. The “woman noted ironically that she had listened to the voice of the king and that he [now] should listen to her voice. … She had risked her life to conjure up the dead (v 21; cf. v 9).” On the other hand, this passage suggests that regrettably it “was the voice of the woman and his servants he [Saul] obeyed (v 23) and not the voice of Yahweh (v 18)” (Klein: 272–73).

The Wise Woman of Tekoa

Abigail of Maon counsels pre-monarchic David to avoid bloodguilt. In the case of the Wise Woman of Tekoa there also is a question whether the consequences of bloodguilt can be avoided. (For a discussion about vengeance and bloodguilt see Halbertal & Holmes: 119–21). In her words to King David, the Wise Woman of Tekoa implies that “there were no witnesses, hence the case could well be considered …as a manslaughter” (Anderson: 188). Undoubtedly, “Joab is in need of an actress, not a professional mourner.” McCarter praises “the Tekoite woman’s craft that she is able so effectively to command royal sympathy for herself and her son over against the legitimate claims of the clan. More remarkable still is the facility with which she is able to elicit a parallel to the case of Abishalom [Absalom],” especially since according to her testimony the fight between her sons was in the heat of the moment, while the “murder of Aminon [Amnon] …was premeditated and carefully planned.(McCarter 1984: 345, 351). Another contemporary commentator offers a link between this woman speaking to a mature David, and the example of a different woman, years earlier addressing the young David prior to his ascending the throne. He suggests that

the Tekoite woman shows that she might have been trained by Abigail. She starts the appeal …(v 9) just like Abigail (1 Sam 25:24): “On me be the guilt”; and she uses “my lord the king” more densely (9x) than any other speaker apart from Abigail (15x)…. But the Tekoite goes beyond Abigail in accepting any guilt: when she echoes David’s claim (3:28) that he and his kingdom are innocent of the death of Abner [Auld: 492],

which is no small irony considering that Joab arranged this encounter with King David, and it is Joab who killed Abner. The Tekoite’s speech was audacious “since David might react angrily at having been duped and manipulated” (Halbertal & Holmes: 123).

The Wise Woman of Abel

The confrontation at Abel between the Wise Woman and Joab offers interesting contrasts with the previous encounter with David when he was in dialogue with the Tekoite. In the earlier case the woman met David in a private consultation; here the action takes place where many can hear their words. Earlier the Tekoite is able through her words to convince

David to set aside the interest of the society as a whole in favor of the interests of one man [Absalom], and the result is [Absalom’s] rebellion. In the present chapter the wise woman of Abel …tells Joab what to do, [she] counsels the sacrifice of one man in the interests of the society as a whole, and the result is the prevention of a rebellion [McCarter 1984: 431].

Although there are differences between these two episodes, they also are closely related. The presence and authority that both women appear to possess suggests that they live far away from the central government; they were not affected by the institutions of the monarchy (Hackett: 162). Camp offers the view that their roles reflected “a regularized set of functions rather than an official position” (Camp: 195). McCarter writes of

several verbal links between the accounts of David’s interview with the wise woman of Tekoa … and Joab’s interview with the wise woman of Abel… [In this case there is a] ‘public epilogue’ to the story of Abishalom’s revolt, [by way of contrast earlier there was] …a “private prologue.” …In both cases the fate of a man who causes trouble for Israel …is decided [McCarter 1984: 350–51].

Conclusion

1–2 Samuel is a time of major transition in ancient Israel. Society is moving from the period of the charismatic leaders-of-the-moment, the warrior-judges, to a first attempt at monarchy under Saul, and then the long and tumultuous reign of David. The great judge-priest-prophet king-maker and king-breaker Samuel is born, lives, and dies in this era. His presence, or more to the point, his absence and then his ghostly presence is a central feature in the episode at Endor. Saul’s choice as king and his often difficult relationship with Samuel are likewise framed in 1–2 Samuel. David’s career, both early and then later spans these books. Within these masterfully written descriptions in 1–2 Samuel four very different women dare to take a stand which puts them in a position where they confront male figures who in principle, and possibly in practice, possess the strength to retaliate with violence. Although there are some overlapping qualities between these women, each is an individual in her own right. Abigail is the wife of a wealthy landowner. Without her husband’s knowledge, much less his consent, she goes to intercede with David who has unquestionable violence on his mind. Abigail’s address, the longest speech by a woman in the whole Bible, is a mixture of flattery and persuasion. The Medium of Endor is virtually the polar opposite of Abigail. The medium is necessarily a shadowy personage. Living on the outskirts of society, she is a marginal figure. The Wise Woman of Tekoa at the urging of Joab fabricates a scenario which mimics the situation in which David finds himself. She then dares to draw the parallel for him. The Wise Woman of Abel is clearly respected by her community, and she likewise has the admiration of Joab. Yet there is a huge power differential; all these women are in an inferior position compared to the man with whom they are directly engaged. Nonetheless, all four of these women, with great personal courage show their inner strength. They have the courage to dare to speak truth to power. From an established and wealthy woman, to a societal outcast, to a woman who fabricates a story to achieve a greater good, to a woman who negotiates a peaceful settlement for her community, these four women take risks to achieve their goals. These women are articulate; they are courageous. Each has a unique role within her particular society. The two wise women in 2 Samuel no doubt share greater affinities than do Abigail of Maon and Medium of Endor in 1 Samuel, but all four when faced with a difficult situation rise to the occasion. Not one of them knew with any certainty that she would be successful in her endeavors. As noted at the beginning of this article, in each case these women dare to confront authority at great risk to their own personal wellbeing.

References

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2011. I and II Samuel: A Commentary. OTL Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox.

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Brown, C. A.

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Brueggemann, W.

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