Back to the Future

Abstract

This research examined the proposition that nostalgia is not simply a past-oriented emotion, but its scope extends into the future, and, in particular, a positive future. We adopted a convergent validation approach, using multiple methods to assess the relation between nostalgia and optimism. Study 1 tested whether nostalgic narratives entail traces of optimism; indeed, nostalgic (compared with ordinary) narratives contained more expressions of optimism. Study 2 manipulated nostalgia through the recollection of nostalgic (vs. ordinary) events, and showed that nostalgia boosts optimism. Study 3 demonstrated that the effect of nostalgia (induced with nomothetically relevant songs) on optimism is mediated by self-esteem. Finally, Study 4 established that nostalgia (induced with idiographically relevant lyrics) fosters social connectedness, which subsequently increases self-esteem, which then boosts optimism. The nostalgic experience is inherently optimistic and paints a subjectively rosier future.

Keywords

nostalgia optimism emotion memory self-esteem social connectedness

The capacity for mental time travel is considered uniquely human (Sedikides & Skowronski, 1997; Suddendorf & Corballis, 2007). Recollection of the past, consideration of the present, and projection onto the future are interdependent cognitive processes with a shared neurological substrate (Johnson & Sherman, 1990; Klein, Robertson, & Delton, 2010). Hence, if the present self derives positivity from one’s past, as research shows is typically the case in nostalgic reverie (Hepper, Ritchie, Sedikides, & Wildschut, 2012; Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt, & Routledge, 2008; Wildschut, Sedikides, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006), this positivity could stretch out in time and produce a brighter outlook on the future. Stated otherwise, when individuals become nostalgic, they may accordingly feel optimistic about their future. We test this proposition while also examining mechanisms through which nostalgia may elicit optimism.

Historical and Contemporary Conceptions of Nostalgia

Nostalgia has historically been conceptualized as pathological maladaptation to the present reality and as trepidation of the future (Sedikides et al., 2008; Sedikides, Wildschut, & Baden, 2004). In the 17th century, physician Johannes Hofer (1688/1934) coined the term nostalgia to describe physical and psychological symptoms among Swiss mercenaries fighting away from home and for assorted European monarchs. Since then, nostalgia has been labeled a neurological disease (Scheuchzer, 1731) and a psychological disorder (e.g., repressive compulsion, psychosis; Sterba, 1940). The consensus was that nostalgic individuals are preoccupied with bygone events or objects, such that “their longing for the past matches their dislike of the present and their dread of the future” (Castelnuovo-Tedesco, 1980, p. 121). In nostalgia, “the past is lost. The future can never be realized. All is empty. All is lost.” (Kleiner, 1977, p. 472).

Nostalgia, then, was long considered a doomed state of mind: an escapist reaction to the demands of the present and an anxiety toward the future (Nawas & Platt, 1965). These views began to fade in the late 20th century with the suggestion that nostalgia may, to some extent, be a positive and useful emotion (Davis, 1979), although robust opposition to this suggestion remained the norm (for reviews, see Sedikides et al., 2004; Sedikides, Wildschut, Arndt, & Routledge, 2006).

Recent empirical forays have paved the way toward rehabilitation of the construct of nostalgia. Laypersons indicate that positive feelings (e.g., happiness, fondness) are more prototypical of nostalgia than are negative feelings (e.g., sadness, regret; Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012). Indeed, nostalgic narratives may be bittersweet, but their positive affect (PA; e.g., tenderness) far outweighs their negative affect (e.g., loss; Holak & Havlena, 1998; Stephan, Sedikides, & Wildschut, 2012). In addition, content analyses on nostalgic narratives reveal that nostalgia is a self-relevant emotion, and that nostalgic memories entail interactions with valued others in the context of momentous life occasions (Holak & Havlena, 1992; Wildschut et al., 2006). Furthermore, nostalgic narratives are distinguishable from narratives of positive or ordinary events: The linguistic representation of nostalgic narratives involves the use of more meaning-ascribing abstract terms, elicits a greater sense of authenticity, and manifests a bittersweet affective signature (Stephan et al., 2012). It follows that the experimental induction of nostalgia may confer psychological benefits, and this is the case. For example, nostalgia raises self-esteem (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Vess, Arndt, Routledge, Sedikides, & Wildschut, 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006) and fosters social connectedness (Wildschut et al., 2006; Wildschut, Sedikides, Routledge, Arndt, & Cordaro, 2010; Zhou, Sedikides, Wildschut, & Gao, 2008).

Understanding Nostalgia in a Brand New Light: The Future Orientation of Nostalgia

In all, nostalgia, a seemingly past-oriented emotion, renders the present more positive. But does it also shed a positive light on the future? To be exact, does it breed optimism?

The literature is mute on the topic. Yet, answers to these questions can have theoretical and practical implications. From a theoretical standpoint, answers may inform the nature of nostalgia and the breadth of its psychological utility, as well as provide a broader understanding of the implications of the human capacity for temporal thought. From a practical standpoint, answers may identify a critical antecedent of optimism—a trait or state linked with enhancing well-being and effective coping, and with dampening negative affect and symptom reporting (Andersson, 1996; Carver, Scheier, & Segerstrom, 2010; K. E. Hart & Hittner, 1995; Isaacowitz, 2005; Scheier & Carver, 1992). With the exception of a few studies on genetic (vs. environmental) and developmental influences on optimism (Ek, Remes, & Sovio, 2004; Gillham & Reivich, 2004; Heinonen, Räikkönen, & Keltikangas-Järvinen, 2005; Mosing, Zietsch, Shekar, Wright, & Martin, 2009; Scheier & Carver, 1993), research on trait, let alone state, antecedents or causes of optimism is sparse.

Sociologist Fred Davis (1977) was the first to suggest that nostalgia may promote a sunny outlook on the future. He mused,

It (nostalgia) reassures us of past happiness and accomplishment; and, since these still remain on deposit, as it were, in the bank of our memory, it simultaneously bestows upon us a certain worth, irrespective of how present circumstances may seem to question or obscure this. And current worth, as our friendly bank loan officer assures us, is titled to at least some claim on the future as well. (p. 420)

Davis’s idea that nostalgia constitutes a deposit in the bank of memory to be retrieved in the service of the future is consistent with recent findings that individuals treasure nostalgic memories as a resource for maximizing future well-being (Zauberman, Ratner, & Kim, 2009). The idea is also consistent with other lines of inquiry.

First, recollection and future projection share cognitive processes and neurological underpinnings. Clinical evidence indicates that patients with difficulty in retrieving the past also have problems imagining new experiences (Hassabis, Kumaran, Vann, & Maguire, 2007; Klein, Loftus, & Kihlstrom, 2002; Tulving, 1985) or describing their future in detail (Addis, Sacchetti, Ally, Budson, & Schacter, 2009; Brown, Dorfman, Marmar, & Bryant, 2012). Similarly, neuroimaging studies show that thinking about the past and the future involves a common neural network (Buckner & Carroll, 2007; Hassabis & Maguire, 2007; Schacter & Addis, 2007; Viard et al., 2011). The human mind, then, recruits similar processes in formulating mental representations of past and future events. It follows that, if nostalgic recollection activates past positivity, this positivity may be projected onto the future.

Second, recollection and future projection are interdependent (Johnson & Sherman, 1990). Past experiences predict optimism in judgment or decision making (Albarracin & Wyer, 2000) and in interpersonal relationships (Carnelley & Janoff-Bulman, 1992). Accordingly, nostalgic recollection of fond memories may generate a buoyant outlook on the future.

How Would Nostalgia Elicit Optimism? The Role of Self-Esteem and Social Connectedness

What are the mechanisms through which nostalgia may elicit optimism? Davis (1977), as quoted above, speculated that, when nostalgic, individuals retrieve positivity accumulated from the past to boost their current self-worth, thus feeling upbeat about the future. In line with this speculation, we propose that self-esteem constitutes a key mechanism linking nostalgia to optimism or through which nostalgia infuses optimism. Individuals may use their recollections of the past to raise their self-worth (Peetz & Wilson, 2008; Wilson & Ross, 2003), and, as we mentioned previously, research has specifically established that nostalgia lifts self-esteem (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006). Importantly, self-esteem is associated with optimism (Chemers, Watson, & May, 2000; Mäkikangas & Kinnunen, 2003; Mäkikangas, Kinnunen, & Feldt, 2004) and shares a genetic basis with it (Saphire-Bernsteina, Way, Kim, Sherman, & Taylor, 2011). Nevertheless, self-esteem and optimism are sufficiently distinct (Fontaine & Jones, 1997; Scheier, Carver, & Bridges, 1994) to warrant treatment as relatively independent resources.

But where does self-esteem originate? A commonality among relevant theoretical statements (contingencies of self-worth: Crocker & Wolfe, 2001; sociometer theory: Leary, 2005; terror-management theory: Pyszczynski, Greenberg, Solomon, Arndt, & Schimel, 2004) is an emphasis on the social or sociocultural bases of self-esteem. Self-esteem originates in, or is greatly influenced by, relational and sociocultural processes. From the perspective of the current investigation, social connectedness may form a pivotal foundation for self-esteem. As mentioned above, research has established that nostalgia strengthens social connectedness (Wildschut et al., 2006, 2010). For example, sociality (e.g., family, love) is a centrally prototypical feature of the construct of nostalgia (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012). In addition, experimentally induced nostalgia prompts stronger perceived affiliation with others (Zhou et al., 2008; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, & Feng, 2012). Social connectedness, in turn, would augment self-esteem, which would boost optimism. Indeed, preliminary evidence indicates that social support can operate through self-esteem to influence optimism (Symister & Friend, 2003). Of course, it is also possible that social connectedness (having been induced through experimental manipulations of nostalgia) directly incites an upsurge in optimism, given that social connectedness (i.e., perceived social support) is associated with or predicts optimism (Brissette, Scheier, & Carver, 2002; MacLeod & Conway, 2005; Segerstrom, 2007). We test for these possibilities in the present research.

Overview

We examine for the first time the future orientation of nostalgia and the possibility that nostalgia serves as a resource through which individuals may generate optimism internally, that is, with no reliance on accomplishments or external signals of social acceptance. We conducted four studies. In Study 1, we tested whether nostalgia naturally incorporates optimism, by counting the percentage of optimism-related words in nostalgic narratives. The remaining three studies featured experimental inductions of nostalgia. We adopted a convergent validation approach (Campbell & Fiske, 1959) in manipulating nostalgia via multiple methods. In Study 2, we induced nostalgia via recollection of nostalgic (vs. ordinary autobiographical) events, and asked whether nostalgia boosts optimism. In Study 3, we manipulated nostalgia with a nomothetically relevant nostalgic (vs. control) song. We tested whether self-esteem mediates the relation between nostalgia and optimism. Finally, in Study 4, we presented idiographically relevant nostalgic (vs. control) lyrics. We examined whether social connectedness (a) forms the basis for self-esteem’s mediational role in the relation between nostalgia and optimism, or (b) mediates directly the relation between nostalgia and optimism.

Study 1

Previous research has highlighted the strengths of word-level linguistic analysis in uncovering psychological processes within written texts (Rude, Gortner, & Pennebaker, 2004). We used this methodology to investigate, in Study 1, whether nostalgic narratives contain more optimism-related words (optimism expressions) than ordinary autobiographical narratives.

We also sought to examine the role of PA in the relation between nostalgia and optimism. The content of nostalgic narratives is more positive than negative (Stephan et al., 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006). In addition, nostalgia typically (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Stephan et al., 2012; Verplanken, 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006, 2010; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012, Study 1) but not always (Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012, Studies 2-4) increases PA. Although research has begun to establish unique effects of nostalgia above and beyond PA (Routledge, Wildschut, Sedikides, Juhl, & Arndt, 2012, Studies 2-3; Stephan et al., 2012, Study 2), it is not clear whether nostalgia would entail optimism above and beyond PA.

Method

Participants

One hundred and two University of Southampton undergraduates (92 women, 10 men) participated for course credit. Participant age ranged from 18 to 38 years (M = 20.09, SD = 2.87). We randomly assigned participants to the nostalgia and control conditions. Given that the results were not qualified by gender (with acknowledgment of the small number of male participants), we omitted this variable from subsequent analyses.

Procedure and materials

In the nostalgia condition, participants were instructed to “bring to mind a nostalgic event in your life. Specifically, try to think of a past event that makes you feel most nostalgic.” In the control condition, participants were instructed to “bring to mind an ordinary event in your life.” Participants in both conditions took a few moments to think about the event and how it made them feel. They were then allotted 5 min to provide a written account of the experience. Next, participants completed a 3-item nostalgia manipulation check (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree): “Right now, I am feeling quite nostalgic,” “Right now, I am having nostalgic feelings,” “I feel nostalgic at the moment” (α = .97, M = 3.92, SD = 1.47). The nostalgia induction and manipulation check have been validated by prior research in the United Kingdom (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Stephan et al., 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006) the United States (Routledge, Arndt, Sedikides, & Wildschut, 2008; Routledge et al., 2011, 2012), and also in China (Zhou et al., 2008; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Chen, & Vingerhoets, 2012; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012).

Participant-generated narratives were transcribed by a research assistant and analyzed with Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count software (Pennebaker, Booth, & Francis, 2007). LIWC works according to an internal dictionary of approximately 4,500 words, and calculates the relative frequency (i.e., proportion) of different word categories. Participants wrote an average of 117.74 words (SD = 39.61). Average word counts in the nostalgia (M = 122.85, SD = 40.61) and control (M = 112.20, SD = 38.13) conditions did not differ significantly, F(1, 100) = 1.86, p = .18, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .02. Across all narratives, the LIWC dictionary was able to classify 77.06% of words (SD = 6.40), a typical ratio in studies using LIWC (for an overview, see Pennebaker & Graybeal, 2001). We focused on the proportion of words that fell into the optimism category. This category comprises 70 words expressing optimism (e.g., hope, optimistic, determined). We arrived at the proportion of optimism expressions by dividing the number of such words by the total word count for a given narrative.

Following the event description, participants completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule questionnaire (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). All items were preceded by the stem “Thinking about this event makes me feel.” The PA measure comprised 10 items (1 = not at all; 5 = extremely): “interested,” “excited, ” “strong, ” “enthusiastic, ” “attentive, ” “active, ” “proud, ” “alert, ” “inspired, ” “determined” (α = .92, M = 2.72, SD = 0.77). The NA measure consisted of 10 items: “scared,” “irritable,” “ashamed,” “nervous,” “distressed,” “upset,” “guilty,” “hostile,” “jittery,” “afraid” (α = .90, M = 1.31, SD = 0.48).

Results and Discussion

Manipulation check

As intended, participants in the nostalgia condition (M = 4.79, SD = 1.04) reported feeling more nostalgic than those in the control condition (M = 2.98, SD = 1.29), F(1, 100) = 61.25, p = .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .38.

PANAS ratings

Participants in the nostalgia condition (M = 2.85, SD = 0.74) reported marginally more PA than those in the control condition (M = 2.58, SD = 0.79), F(1, 100) = 3.30, p = .07, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .032. Participants in the nostalgia condition (M = 1.306 SD = 0.48) did not report more NA than those in the control condition (M = 1.308 SD = 0.49), F(1, 100) = 0.001, p = .98, $η_{p}^{2}$ < .001. It is noteworthy that, even in the control condition, PA (M = 2.58) exceeded NA (M = 1.31) by a considerable margin, F(1, 48) = 78.92, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .62. It is clearly not the case that nostalgic narratives included more optimism expressions merely because participants in the control condition recalled tedious or negative events. This reinforces prior evidence that the control condition provides an adequate and substantive baseline for assessing the effects of nostalgia (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Routledge et al., 2008, 2011, 2012; Stephan et al., 2012; Vess et al., 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006, 2010; Zhou et al., 2008; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Chen, et al., 2012; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012).

Optimism

Nostalgic narratives (M = 0.61%, SD = .78) contained a significantly higher proportion of optimism expressions than ordinary autobiographical narratives (M = 0.28%, SD = .48), F(1, 100) = 6.57, p = .012, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .06. The results are consistent with the possibility that the experience of nostalgia entails optimism.

Mediational analyses

We tested whether PA mediated the higher frequency of optimism expressions in nostalgic (compared with ordinary) narratives. We used a bootstrapping analysis (Hayes, 2012; model 4; 10,000 resamples) to test the indirect effect of nostalgic (vs. ordinary) recollection on optimism expressions via PA. When PA was included as a mediator, the direct effect of nostalgic (vs. ordinary) recollection on optimism expressions remained significant, M_{direct effect} = .17, SE = .066, t(99) = 2.518, p = .013. The indirect effect via PA was not significant, M_{indirect effect} = −.001, SE = .014, 95% CI = [−.031, .027]. Overall, the more frequent occurrence of optimism expressions in nostalgic (vs. ordinary) narratives was independent of affective positivity induced by event recollection.

Study 2

The key objective of Study 2 was to corroborate and extend the Study 1 findings by gauging the impact of nostalgia on optimism. We experimentally induced nostalgia and assessed optimism. In addition, we tested PA as a mechanism through which nostalgia may increase optimism. We hypothesized that nostalgic engagement would elicit higher optimism compared with engagement in ordinary autobiographical recollection, above and beyond PA.

Method

Participants

One hundred twenty seven University of Missouri—Columbia undergraduates (65 men, 62 women) took part for course credit. Their ages ranged from 17 to 41 years (M = 18.95, SD = 2.16). We randomly assigned participants to the nostalgia and control conditions. We omitted gender from the reported results, as preliminary analyses indicated that this variable did not qualify the findings. Degrees of freedom vary slightly due to missing values.

Procedure and materials

The nostalgia manipulation and manipulation check (α = .91, M = 3.55, SD = 1.38) were identical to those of Study 1. Following the manipulation check, participants completed measures of PA and optimism (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree), all preceded by the stem “Thinking about this event makes me feel.” The PA measure, which we constructed for the purposes of this study (cf., Martin, Abend, Sedikides, & Green, 1997), comprised four items: “puts me in a great mood,” “makes me feel good,” “gives me positive feelings,” and “makes me feel great” (α = .97, M = 3.72, SD = 1.16). Likewise, the optimism measure, which we also constructed for the objectives of this study, consisted of four items: “makes me feel ready to take on new challenges,” “makes me feel optimistic about my future,” “makes me feel like the sky is the limit,” and “gives me a feeling of hope about my future” (α = .90, M = 3.45, SD = 0.94).

Results and Discussion

Manipulation check

As intended, participants in the nostalgia condition (M = 4.02, SD = 1.29) reported feeling more nostalgic than those in the control condition (M = 3.08, SD = 1.31), F(1, 122) = 16.12, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .12.

PA

Participants in the nostalgia condition (M = 3.93, SD = 1.10) reported more PA than those in the control condition (M = 3.51, SD = 1.20), F(1, 124) = 4.13, p = .044, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .032.

Optimism

As hypothesized, nostalgic participants (M = 3.67, SD = 0.88) expressed more optimism than control participants (M = 3.24, SD = 0.96), F(1, 124) = 6.82, p = .010, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .052.

Mediational analyses

Participants in the nostalgia condition reported more PA than those in the control condition. Thus, PA qualifies as a potential mediator of nostalgia’s effect on optimism. We used a bootstrapping analysis (Hayes, 2012; Model 4; 10,000 resamples) to test the direct effect of nostalgia on optimism, and the indirect effect of nostalgia via PA. The direct effect was significant: M_{direct effect} = .319, SE = .158, t(123) = 2.014, p = .046. The indirect effect was also significant: M_{indirect effect} = .110, SE = .071, 95% CI = [.010, /.294]. Thus, nostalgia boosted optimism directly, and also indirectly via increased PA. Such evidence extends prior findings that have begun to establish unique effects of nostalgia above and beyond PA (Routledge et al., 2011; Stephan et al., 2012; Turner, Wildschut, & Sedikides, 2012; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012).

Study 3

To begin establishing convergent validity, we implemented in Study 3 an alternative manipulation that capitalizes on music’s capacity to evoke nostalgia (Barrett et al., 2010; C. M. Hart et al., 2011; Routledge et al., 2011). Specifically, we induced nostalgia by presenting participants with a nomothetically relevant nostalgic song. We hypothesized that listening to a nostalgic (compared with a control) song would elevate optimism. Furthermore, we relied on a relatively large sample to examine the generality of this effect across gender and age. More important, we tested the mediational role of self-esteem while also taking into account the potential role of PA.

Method

Six hundred and sixty four volunteers (345 women, 319 men) completed the study materials online after visiting the website for “Top 2000,” a popular Dutch radio and television program that is aired annually around Christmas. The “Top 2000” website displayed an invitation to participate in research, and interested visitors could navigate to another website with study materials. Data collection was completed in December 2011 and January 2012. Participant age ranged from 14 to 67 years (M = 36.58, SD = 13.18). Nine percent of participants were aged 14 to 19 years; 29% were aged 20 to 29; 17% were aged 30 to 39; 22% were aged 40 to 49; 20% were aged 50 to 59; and 2% were aged 60 and over. In addition, 97% of participants identified The Netherlands as their country of birth.

We randomly assigned participants to listen either to a nostalgic or control song. We presented songs via a media player in participants’ Internet browser. The Dutch artist Wim Sonneveld performed the songs. The nostalgic song was titled “Het Dorp [The Village]” (released 1974), and the control song was titled “Nikkelen Nelis [Nickeled Nelis]” (released 1965). In a pretest (December 2010 to January 2011), 519 (284 women, 235 men) “Top 2000” listeners rated (1 = not at all, 6 = very much) the extent to which these songs produced nostalgia (“nostalgia” and “longing for the past”) and PA (“happiness” and “positive mood”). Pretest participants listened to both songs in counterbalanced order. As intended, the nostalgic song (M = 4.27, SD = 1.48) produced more nostalgia than the control song (M = 3.05, SD = 1.54), F(1, 518) = 380.90, p < .001. In addition, the nostalgic song (M = 3.15, SD = 1.36) did not produce more PA than the control song (M = 3.06, SD = 1.29), F(1, 518) = 2.09, p = .15.

Assessment of variables

Due to strict space limitations on the survey, we assessed all variables with brief, two-item measures (1 = not at all, 5 = very much).

Manipulation check

Participants rated the extent to which listening to the assigned song induced nostalgia (“nostalgia,” “longing for the past”; r[664] = .67, M = 3.03, SD = 1.29).

PA

Participants rated the extent to which listening to the assigned song induced PA (“happy,” “positive mood”; r[664] = .76, M = 2.79, SD = 1.06).

Self-esteem

Participants rated the extent to which listening to the assigned song induced self-esteem (“feel good about myself,” “satisfied with myself”; r[664] = .90, M = 2.69, SD = 1.11).

Optimism

Finally, participants rated the extent to which listening to the assigned song induced optimism (“optimistic about the future,” “hopeful about the future”; r[664] = .91, M = 2.71, SD = 1.19).

Results and Discussion

Manipulation check

As intended, participants who listened to the nostalgic song (M = 3.44, SD = 1.26) reported higher levels of nostalgia than those who listened to the control song (M = 2.58, SD = 1.17), F(1, 662) = 81.14, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .109.

PA

In replication of the abovementioned pilot study, participants who listened to the nostalgic song (M = 2.86, SD = 1.05) did not report more PA than those who listened to the control song (M = 2.72, SD = 1.07), F(1, 662) = 2.87, p = .091, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .004.

Self-esteem

Replicating past findings (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006), participants in the nostalgia condition (M = 2.79, SD = 1.07) reported higher self-esteem than those in the control condition (M = 2.58, SD = 1.16), F(1, 662) = 5.77, p = .02, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .009.

Optimism

As hypothesized, participants who listened to the nostalgic song reported higher optimism (M = 2.92, SD = 1.15) than those who listened to the control song (M = 2.48, SD = 1.20), F(1, 662) = 23.69, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .035.

Generality of nostalgia’s effect on optimism

The balanced gender composition and wide age range within our sample enabled a strong test of the generality of nostalgia’s effect on optimism. We conducted a Nostalgia × Gender × Age ANCOVA, with age treated as a continuous predictor (i.e., covariate, Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) and with optimism as the dependent variable. We centered participant age prior to the analyses. We present results in Table 1. The nostalgia and age main effects were significant, indicating that optimism was higher among participants who listened to the nostalgic (compared with the control) song and who were older (compared with younger; B_age.optimism = .012, SE = .003). The Nostalgia × Age interaction was not significant, suggesting that the effect of nostalgia on optimism was independent of age. The Nostalgia × Gender interaction was significant. Tests of simple effects showed that, for men, there was a large and statistically significant nostalgia effect, F(1, 656) = 22.85, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .03; for women, the nostalgia effect was smaller but also statistically significant, F(1, 656) = 4.43, p = .036, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .01. To conclude, the effect of nostalgia on optimism generalized across age and gender.

Table 1.

Tests of Main Effects and Interactions Among Nostalgia, Gender, and Age in Study 3.

Effect	F(1, 656)	p	$η_{p}^{2}$
Nostalgia	24.02	<.001	.04
Gender	0.00	.944	.00
Age	12.79	<.001	.02
Nostalgia × Gender	3.91	.048	.01
Nostalgia × Age	0.06	.800	.00
Gender × Age	0.02	.888	.00
Nostalgia × Gender × Age	0.01	.939	.00

Mediational analyses

Self-esteem qualified as a potential mediator of nostalgia’s effect on optimism, but PA did not. Regardless, and for data-analytic continuity purposes, we included self-esteem and PA as parallel mediators in a bootstrapping analysis (Hayes, 2012; model 4; 10,000 resamples). The direct effect of nostalgia on optimism was significant, M_{direct effect} = .14, SE = .03, t(660) = 4.596, p < .001. The indirect effect of nostalgia on optimism via self-esteem was also significant, M_{indirect effect} = .06, SE = .03, 95% CI = [.01, .12]. However, and as expected, the indirect effect of nostalgia on optimism via PA was not significant, M_{indirect effect} = .02, SE = .01, 95% CI = [−.002, .04]. Nostalgia boosted optimism directly, and also indirectly via increased self-esteem, but not via PA.

Study 4

To further establish convergent validity, we implemented in Study 4 an additional music-based, idiographic manipulation of nostalgia (Routledge et al., 2011). We induced nostalgia by presenting participants with lyrics to songs that they had previously identified as nostalgic (compared with control lyrics). We hypothesized that reading nostalgic (compared with control) song lyrics would raise optimism. In addition, we examined the role of social connectedness and self-esteem. Does nostalgia exert an indirect effect on optimism via social connectedness and self-esteem? Specifically, does nostalgia imbue individuals with a sense of social connectedness, which in turn lifts self-esteem? We tested whether this sequential path constitutes a basis for nostalgia’s effect on optimism. We hypothesized that the indirect effect of social connectedness and self-esteem would explain the rise in optimism, above and beyond PA.

Method

Participants

Participants were 127 University of Southampton undergraduates fulfilling a course requirement. Due to technical problems, we were able to record gender and age only for 84 individuals (69 women, 15 men). For this group, participant age ranged from 18 to 42 years (M = 19.38, SD = 3.42). Among participants with identifiable gender information, the results were not qualified by gender, and so we omitted this variable from subsequent analyses.

Procedure and materials

The study involved a preliminary and an experimental session separated by 3 weeks. In the preliminary session, participants received a dictionary definition of nostalgia (“A sentimental longing or wistful affection for the past”; The New Oxford Dictionary of English, 1998, p. 1266) and then listed the titles and performing artists of three songs that made them feel nostalgic. Prior to the experimental session, we randomly allocated participants to conditions. For participants in the nostalgia condition, we retrieved the lyrics of a song that they listed as nostalgic. We yoked participants in the control condition to a participant in the nostalgia condition and designated them to receive the same lyrics as that person. (We ascertained that the relevant song was not one that the control participant also considered nostalgic.) In this way, we were able to use the same set of lyrics in the nostalgia and control conditions, and thus hold constant the content of the lyrics in both conditions (Routledge et al., 2011). During the experimental session, participants read the prepared lyrics (nostalgic or control) and then completed the manipulation check and measures.

Manipulation check

The manipulation check was identical to that of Studies 1 and 2 (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree; α = .98, M = 3.74, SD = 1.47).

PA

We assessed PA with two items. Participants rated the extent to which reading the lyrics made them feel: “happy” and “in a good mood” (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree; r[127] = .90, M = 3.99, SD = 1.32).

Self-esteem

We assessed self-esteem with four items (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006). Participants rated the extent to which reading the lyrics made them feel: “good about myself,” “I like myself better,” “I like myself more,” and “I have many positive qualities” (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree; α = .90, M = 3.28, SD = 1.09).

Social connectedness

We assessed social connectedness with four items (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Wildschut et al., 2006). Participants rated the extent to which reading the lyrics made them feel: “connected to loved ones,” “protected,” “loved,” and “trust others” (1 = strongly disagree, 6 = strongly agree; α = .91, M = 3.58, SD = 1.28).

Optimism

We assessed optimism with the Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R; Scheier et al., 1994). The LOT-R comprises six items (plus four fillers) that assess optimism in terms of having positive, and not negative, expectancies for the future (e.g., “In uncertain times, I usually expect the best,” “If something can go wrong for me, it will” [reverse-scored]; 1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree; α = .85, M = 3.39, SD = .81).

Results and Discussion

Manipulation check

As intended, participants who read personally nostalgic lyrics (M = 4.55, SD = 0.93) reported feeling more nostalgic than those who read control lyrics (M = 2.86, SD = 1.45), F(1, 125) = 61.45, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .33.

PA

Participants who read personally nostalgic lyrics (M = 4.44, SD = 1.22) reported higher levels of PA than those who read control lyrics (M = 3.51, SD = 1.27), F(1, 125) = 17.76, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .12.

Social connectedness

Participants who read personally nostalgic lyrics (M = 4.07, SD = 1.16) reported higher levels of social connectedness than those who read control lyrics (M = 3.04, SD = 1.20), F(1, 125) = 24.28, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .16.

Self-esteem

Participants who read personally nostalgic lyrics (M = 3.64, SD = 1.07) reported higher levels of self-esteem than those who read control lyrics (M = 2.89, SD = 0.98), F(1, 125) = 16.61, p < .001, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .12.

Optimism

Consistent with the hypothesis, participants who read personally nostalgic lyrics (M = 3.55, SD = 0.88) reported higher levels of optimism than those who read control lyrics (M = 3.21, SD = 0.70), F(1, 125) = 5.67, p = .02, $η_{p}^{2}$ = .04.

Mediational analyses

We carried out the analyses using AMOS within SPSS for Windows. We calculated bias-corrected 95% bootstrap confidence intervals (CIs) and bootstrap standard errors for direct and indirect effects (10,000 bootstrap samples). We present tests of direct and indirect effects in Table 2. All but two direct effects (i.e., paths in Figure 1) were significant. Nostalgia increased social connectedness (path a) and self-esteem (above and beyond social connectedness; path b), but it did not directly increase optimism (above and beyond social connectedness and self-esteem; path c). Social connectedness predicted increased self-esteem (above and beyond nostalgia; path d), but it did not directly predict increased optimism (above and beyond nostalgia and self-esteem; path e). Finally, self-esteem predicted increased optimism (above and beyond nostalgia and social connectedness; path f).

Table 2.

Tests of Direct and Indirect Effects in the Mediational Model of Study 4.

Effect	Figure 1 path	Coeff.	SE	95% CI
Direct effects
Nostalgia ⇒ Social connectedness	a	.515**	.104	[.301, .719]
Nostalgia ⇒ Self-esteem	b	.192*	.091	[.012, .372]
Nostalgia ⇒ Optimism	c	.091	.074	[−.046, .253]
Social connectedness ⇒ Self-esteem	d	.348**	.071	[.197, .494]
Social connectedness ⇒ Optimism	e	−.047	.062	[−.171, .073]
Self-esteem ⇒ Optimism	f	.274**	.071	[.132, .412]
Indirect effect: Nostalgia ⇒ Self-esteem
Via social connectedness	a × d	.180*	.052	[.093, .296]
Indirect effect: Nostalgia ⇒ Optimism
Total		.077*	.041	[.006, .164]
Via social connectedness	a × e	−.024	.033	[−.093, .040]
Via self-esteem		.102*	.037	[.043, .187]
Independent of social connectedness	b × f	.053*	.030	[.009, .129]
Mediated by social connectedness	a × d × f	.049**	.019	[.020, .101]

Note. Coeff. = unstandardized path coefficient; 95% CI = 95% bootstrap confidence interval; N = 127.

p < .05. **p < .001.

Figure 1.

Mediational model tested in Study 4.

In addition to these direct effects, all but one indirect effects in Figure 1 were significant. Consistent with the possibility that nostalgia-induced social connectedness constitutes a basis for self-esteem, the link between nostalgia and self-esteem was mediated by social connectedness (Path a × Path d). Regarding the link between nostalgia and optimism, there was a significant total indirect effect of nostalgia on optimism via social connectedness and self-esteem. We partitioned this total indirect effect into a nonsignificant indirect effect via social connectedness (a × e) and a significant indirect effect via self-esteem. In turn, we partitioned the indirect effect via self-esteem into a significant indirect effect that was independent of social connectedness (b × f) and a significant indirect effect that was mediated by social connectedness (a × d × f). The latter indirect effect (a × d × f) provides evidence for an extended causal sequence leading from nostalgia to social connectedness to self-esteem to optimism.

Model fit and alternative models

To assess model fit, we trimmed the nonsignificant direct path from nostalgia to optimism and then calculated fit indices for the resultant nonsaturated model (Figure 1, minus path c). This model provided good fit: χ²(1, N = 127) = 1.51, p = .22, Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMSR) = .03, root mean square error approximation (RMSEA) = .06, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .99. We also tested alternative models, exploring (a) the position of optimism in the postulated causal sequence and (b) the order of social connectedness and self-esteem (i.e., the postulated mediators). We first explored the position of optimism. Given that nostalgia was manipulated, optimism cannot precede nostalgia. However, optimism can precede social connectedness and/or self-esteem. Hence, we tested an alternative model in which optimism preceded social connectedness and self-esteem. This model was analogous to the original model (Figure 1, minus path c) but with optimism in the place of social connectedness, social connectedness in the place of self-esteem, and self-esteem in the place of optimism. This model provided marginal fit (most fit indices were adequate but RMSEA exceeded the .10 threshold that is often used as a cut-off for poor fitting models): χ²(1, N = 127) = 2.44, p = .12, SRMSR = .03, RMSEA = .11, CFI = .98. Within a set of models for the same data, the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC; Akaike, 1974) can be used to compare competing models that need not be nested (smaller is better). For the alternative model, AIC = 28.44. By comparison, for the original model, AIC = 27.51. The fit statistics for this first alternative model are identical to those for a second alternative model, in which optimism follows social connectedness but precedes self-esteem. The reason for this is that the two alternative models differ only in the direction of the link between social connectedness and optimism, but are otherwise identical. Any two models that have the same paths between the same variables will have the same fit, even if some paths are in a different direction. In all, these results indicate that the original model is preferable to alternative models in which optimism precedes social connectedness and/or self-esteem.

Next, we tested a third alternative model, in which the order of social connectedness and self-esteem (i.e., the mediators) was reversed. This third alternative model differs from the original model (Figure 1, minus Path c) only in the direction of the link between social connectedness and self-esteem. Accordingly, the models have identical fit. However, in this alternative model, social connectedness (the proximal predictor of optimism) did not predict optimism above and beyond nostalgia and self-esteem. We therefore retained the original model, in which social connectedness precedes self-esteem.

Testing the mediational role of PA

Finally, we again explored the possible mediational role of PA. Specifically, we tested the Figure 1 model with PA as an additional mediator (Figure 1, plus a path from nostalgia to optimism via PA). This analysis revealed that the indirect effect of nostalgia on optimism via PA was not significant, M_{indirect effect} = −.029, SE = .036, 95% CI = [−.110, .036]. Furthermore, the vital extended path from nostalgia to optimism via social connectedness and self-esteem (a × d × f) remained significant, M_{indirect effect} = .058, SE = .025, 95% CI = [.023, .123]. In all, we obtained support for a model in which the effect of nostalgia is mediated by social connectedness and concomitant self-esteem, above and beyond PA.

General Discussion

Nostalgia’s referent is the past, but its psychological scope may extend into the future. This is an important issue, given the prevalence of nostalgic reverie and the potent influence of optimism on psychological well-being. Prior work, for example, reveals that nostalgia is experienced across cultures (Hepper et al., 2013) and approximately three times a week (Wildschut et al., 2006). Yet prior research has not considered the future orientation of nostalgia, and, more specifically, the relation between nostalgia and optimism. Are there any indications that nostalgic accounts contain traces of optimism? Does nostalgic reverie engender optimism? If so, how?

Summary and Implications of the Findings

An initial foray into these issues, Study 1, demonstrated that nostalgic (compared with ordinary autobiographical) narratives do entail optimism, and, in particular, optimism expressions. Notably, expressions of optimism in the nostalgic narratives occurred above and beyond ratings of PA. Whereas the strength of Study 1 allowed a naturalistic glimpse into displays of optimism in nostalgia writings, this feature also constitutes the study’s chief weakness. The study may have contributed a foundational step in understanding the relation between nostalgia and optimism, but it does not permit causal inferences about nostalgia’s capacity to elicit optimism. Therefore, the next three studies adopted multiple converging experimental inductions of nostalgia and assessed their effects on optimism.

Study 2 offered evidence of a causal link by illustrating that experimentally induced nostalgia augments optimism. Study 2 also measured PA and found that the nostalgia-induced augmentation of optimism occurred above and beyond PA. This finding helps to address concerns that it may simply be positive mood stemming from nostalgic (vs. ordinary) events that drives the effect of nostalgia on optimism. Such concerns were also allayed by Studies 3 and 4.

Study 3 replicated the Study 2 findings using exposure to nomothetically relevant nostalgic versus control songs, a validated technique (Sedikides et al., 2013). Moreover, Study 3 illustrated the mediational role of self-esteem: nostalgia raises self-esteem, which in turn heightens optimism. Such findings build on prior work showing that memories of one’s past can help to maintain current feelings of self-worth (Peetz & Wilson, 2008; Wilson & Ross, 2003), but extend these insights into demonstrate that the current feelings of self-worth that nostalgia elicits can then contribute to a brighter forecast of the future. In all, Study 3 showcased a distinct pathway through which the past bolsters the present, which then brightens the future.

Study 4 helped to clarify further these processes using exposure to idiographically nostalgic (vs. control) music lyrics, also a validated technique (Routledge et al., 2011). This study established an extended causal sequence that affirmed the status of social connectedness as a basis for self-esteem. Nostalgia fostered social connectedness, which subsequently lifted self-esteem, which then heightened optimism. Put otherwise, the self-esteem lift that participants experienced stemmed from an enhanced sense of social connectedness that was derived from nostalgic reverie; this self-esteem lift, in turns, raised optimism.

Limitations and Broader Considerations

As mentioned above, every nostalgia induction technique we used has been validated (Hepper, Ritchie, et al., 2012; Routledge et al., 2011; Sedikides et al., 2013; Wildschut et al., 2006). Nevertheless, taken alone, the techniques have their weaknesses and may invite alternative interpretation of the findings. For example, in Studies 1 and 2, the nostalgic and ordinary autobiographical narratives may differ beyond the nostalgic qualities we targeted, and may be confounded by other content-specific elements of the narratives. Similar issues may apply to the nostalgic and control songs in Study 3. Such possible confounds, however, are countered by our convergent operations approach (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). This multimethod approach yielded consistent evidence that nostalgia entails and engenders optimism. Finally, in all four studies, nostalgia increased optimism above and beyond PA. Such evidence extends prior research that has begun to establish unique effects of nostalgia, independent of PA (Routledge et al., 2012; Stephan et al., 2012; Turner et al., 2012; Turner, Wildschut, Sedikides, & Gheorghiu, 2013; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Chen, et al., 2012; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012).

Given our focus on global optimism, one might wonder whether the findings generalize to specific domains. We anticipate that nostalgia will also infuse optimism on concrete behavioral domains. To begin with, global optimism is a good proxy of specific, optimism-related behavior (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006). Moreover, nostalgic reverie strengthens intentions to donate time or money to charity (Merchant, Ford, & Rose, 2011; Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012), promotes tangible monetary donations (Zhou, Wildschut, Sedikides, Shi, et al., 2012), and solidifies the proclivity to interact with members of an outgroup (Turner et al., 2012, Turner et al., 2013). Regardless, future studies would do well to examine whether nostalgia prompts optimism in specific domains and also whether it propels relevant action.

Nostalgia boosts a sense of attachment security and perceptions of one’s interpersonal competence (Wildschut et al., 2006, 2010), while relational competence increases optimism for relationships (Carnelley & Janoff-Bulman, 1992). As such, nostalgic engagement—through optimism—might contribute to supportive and commitment-focused behaviors in close relationships (Hepper, Wildschut, & Sedikides, 2012). Given that social connectedness was the mechanism by which nostalgia raised self-esteem and thereby optimism, the inherent sociality of nostalgia might also explain optimism and goal-directed behavior in other domains. That is, nostalgia might act as a source of felt security, which, according to attachment theory, allows individuals to form positive expectations, explore their environment confidently and energetically, and approach novel experiences (Carnelley & Ruscher, 2000; Luke, Sedikides, & Carnelley, 2012).

Optimism confers well-being and health benefits (Carver et al., 2010; K. E. Hart & Hittner, 1995). Nostalgia, then, may be one route toward well-being, motivating healthy behaviors and even relationship success. Furthermore, given evidence that nostalgic memories are often recruited in times of loneliness, sadness, boredom, or existential doubt (Routledge et al., 2008; van Tilburg, Igou, & Sedikides, 2013; Wildschut et al., 2006; Zhou et al., 2008), our findings imply that nostalgia, by promoting optimism, could help individuals cope with psychological adversity in a more engaged, less avoidant, and ultimately healthier manner.

Nostalgia can be used, not only to infuse, but also to maintain, optimism. Individuals may be optimistic in the initial stages of task involvement, but they typically become less optimistic as the point of feedback pertaining to task outcomes draws nearer (Sweeny & Krizan, 2013). Nostalgia may counter these temporal declines in optimism and renew the strength of goal pursuit. By so doing, nostalgia could facilitate improvement, if not success (Sedikides & Hepper, 2009), at least in cases where pessimism is unwarranted or maladaptive. Of course, for certain individuals, nostalgia may have undesirable consequences, and this is a pressing topic for future research. Depressed persons, for example, may nostalgically reflect on their past in a way that disconnects it from present or future prospects, and they may even use such reflection to justify a pessimistic outlook (Iyer & Jetten, 2011; Verplanken, 2012). Yet, given the nature and consistency of the present findings, any such exceptions are overshadowed by nostalgia’s capacity to facilitate perceptions of a more positive future.

Finally, our findings offer another example of connectivity between temporal projections. They suggest that the common neural network involved in past and future representations (Brown et al., 2012; Viard et al., 2011) is applied to representations of the self and self-relevant events. Nostalgia may constitute a catalyst for linking one’s personal past, present, and future, thus providing a sense of self-continuity (Sedikides et al., 2008, 2013).

Coda

The current research established that nostalgia promotes optimism. This pattern held regardless of the way in which nostalgia was induced, for women and men, across age groups, and in three cultures (American, English, Dutch). The optimistic flame ignited by nostalgia is fuelled by increases in self-esteem, which is founded on social connectedness. Nostalgia is not just an old, sepia-toned photo, locked in a box. Its power is far-reaching and can brighten up the path ahead.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References

Addis

D. R.

Sacchetti

D. C.

Ally

B. A.

Budson

A. E.

Schacter

D. L.

(2009). Episodic simulation of future events is impaired in mild Alzheimer’s disease. Neuropsychologia, 47, 2660-2671. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.05.018

Akaike

(1974). A new look at the statistical model identification. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control, 19, 716-723. doi:10.1109/TAC.1974.1100705

Albarracin

Wyer

R. S.

(2000). The cognitive impact on past behavior: Influences on beliefs, attitudes and future behavioral decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 5-22. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.79.1.5

Anderson

Galinsky

A. D.

(2006). Power, optimism, and risk-taking. European Journal of Social Psychology, 36, 511-536. doi:10.1002/ejsp.324

Andersson

(1996). The benefits of optimism: A meta-analytic review of the Life Orientation Test. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 719-725. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(96)00118-3

Barrett

F. S.

Grimm

K. J. S.

Robins

R. W.

Wildschut

Sedikides

Janata

(2010). Music-evoked nostalgia: Affect, memory, and personality. Emotion, 10, 390-403. doi:10.1037/a0019006

Brissette

Scheier

M. F.

Carver

C. S.

(2002). The role of optimism in social network development, coping, and psychological adjustment during a life transition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 102-111. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.82.1.102

Brown

A. D.

Dorfman

M. L.

Marmar

C. R.

Bryant

R. A.

(2012). The impact of perceived self-efficacy on mental time travel and social problem solving. Consciousness and Cognition, 21, 299-306. doi:10.1016/j.concog.2011.09.023

Buckner

R. L.

Carroll

D. C.

(2007). Self-projection and the brain. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11, 49-57. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2006.11.004

10.

Campbell

D. T.

Fiske

D. W.

(1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multitrait-multimethod matrix. Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81-105.

11.

Carnelley

K. B.

Janoff-Bulman

(1992). Optimism about love relationships: General vs specific lessons from one’s personal experiences. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 9, 5-20. doi:10.1177/0265407592091001

12.

Carnelley

K. B.

Ruscher

J. B.

(2000). Adult attachment and exploratory behavior in leisure. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 15, 153-165.

13.

Carver

Scheier

M. F.

Segerstrom

(2010). Optimism. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 879-889. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2010.01.006

14.

Castelnuovo-Tedesco

(1980). Reminiscence and nostalgia: The pleasure and pain of remembering. In Greenspan

S. I.

Pollack

G. H.

(Eds.), The course of life: Psychoanalytic contributions toward understanding personality development. Vol. III: Adulthood and the aging process (pp. 104-118). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

15.

Chemers

M. M.

Watson

C. B.

May

S. T.

(2000). Dispositional affect and leadership effectiveness: A comparison of self-esteem, optimism, and efficacy. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 267-277. doi:10.1177/0146167200265001

16.

Crocker

Wolfe

C. T.

(2001). Contingencies of self-worth. Psychological Review, 108, 593-623. doi:10.1037//0033-295X.108.3.593

17.

Davis

(1977). Nostalgia, identity, and the current nostalgia wave. Journal of Popular Culture, 11, 414-425. doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1977.00414.x

18.

Davis

(1979). Yearning for yesterday: A sociology of nostalgia. New York, NY: Free Press.

19.

Remes

Sovio

(2004). Social and developmental predictors of optimism from infancy to early adulthood. Social Indicators Research, 69, 219-242. doi:10.1023/B:SOCI.0000033591.80716.07

20.

Fontaine

K. R.

Jones

L. C.

(1997). Self-esteem, optimism, and postpartum depression. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 59-63. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199701)53:1<59::AID-JCLP8>3.3.CO;2-C

21.

Gillham

Reivich

(2004). Cultivating optimism in childhood and adolescence. ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 146-163. doi:10.1177/0002716203260095

22.

Hart

C. M.

Sedikides

Wildschut

Arndt

Routledge

Vingerhoets

A. J. J. M.

(2011). Nostalgic recollections of high and low narcissists. Journal of Research in Personality, 45, 238-242. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2011.01.002

23.

Hart

K. E.

Hittner

J. B.

(1995). Optimism and pessimism: Associations to coping and anger-reactivity. Personality and Individual Differences, 19, 827-839. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(95)00104-2

24.

Hassabis

Kumaran

Vann

S. D.

Maguire

E. A.

(2007). Patients with hippocampal amnesia cannot imagine new experiences. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104, 1726-1731. doi:10.1073/pnas.0610561104

25.

Hassabis

Maguire

E. A.

(2007). Deconstructing episodic memory with construction. Trends in Cognitive Science, 11, 299-306. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.05.001

26.

Hayes

A. F.

(2012). PROCESS: A versatile computational tool for observed variable mediation, moderation, and conditional process modeling [White paper]. Retrieved from http://www.afhayes.com/public/process2012.pdf

27.

Heinonen

Räikkönen

Keltikangas-Järvinen

(2005). Dispositional optimism: Development over 21 years from the perspectives of perceived temperament and mothering. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 425-435. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2004.04.020

28.

Hepper

E. G.

Ritchie

T. D.

Sedikides

Wildschut

(2012). Odyssey’s end: Lay conceptions of nostalgia reflect its original Homeric meaning. Emotion, 12, 102-119. doi:10.1037/a0025167

29.

Hepper

E. G.

Wildschut

Sedikides

(2012, July). Down memory lane together: Nostalgic interactions in close relationships. Poster presented at the International Association of Relationship Research Conference, Chicago, IL.

30.

Hepper

E. G.

Wildschut

Sedikides

Ritchie

T. D.

Yung

Y.-F.

Hansen

Zhou

(2013). Pancultural nostalgia: Prototypical conceptions across cultures. Unpublished manuscript, University of Surrey, UK.

31.

Hofer

(1934). Medical dissertation on nostalgia ( Anspach

C. K.

, Trans.). Bulletin of the History of Medicine, 2, 376-391. (Original work published 1688)

32.

Holak

S. L.

Havlena

W. J.

(1992). Nostalgia: An exploratory study of themes and emotions in the nostalgic experience. Advances in Consumer Research, 19, 380-386.

33.

Holak

S. L.

Havlena

W. J.

(1998). Feelings, fantasies, and memories: An examination of the emotional components of nostalgia. Journal of Business Research, 42, 217-226. doi:10.1016/S0148-2963(97)00119-7

34.

Isaacowitz

D. M.

(2005). Correlates of well-being in adulthood and old age: A tale of two optimisms. Journal of Research in Personality, 39, 224-244. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2004.02.003

35.

Iyer

Jetten

(2011). What’s left behind: Identity continuity moderates the effect of nostalgia on well-being and life choices. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 94-108. doi:10.1037/a0022496

36.

Johnson

M. R.

Sherman

S. J.

(1990). Constructing and reconstructing the past and future in the present. In Higgins

E. T.

Sorrentino

R. M.

(Eds.), Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 482-526). New York, NY: Guilford.

37.

Klein

S. B.

Loftus

Kihlstrom

(2002). Memory and temporal experience. The effects of episodic memory loss on an amnesic patient’s ability to remember the past and imagine the future. Social Cognition, 20, 353-379. doi:10.1521/soco.20.5.353.21125

38.

Klein

S. B.

Robertson

T. E.

Delton

A. W.

(2010). Facing the future: Memory as an evolved system for planning future acts. Memory and Cognition, 38, 13-22. doi:10.3758/MC.38.1.13

39.

Kleiner

(1977). On nostalgia. In Socarides

C. W.

(Ed.), The world of emotions (pp. 471-498). New York, NY: International University Press.

40.

Leary

M. R.

(2005). Sociometer theory and the pursuit of relational value: Getting to the root of self-esteem. European Review of Social Psychology, 16, 75-111. doi:10.1080/10463280540000007

41.

Luke

Sedikides

C. A.

Carnelley

K. B.

(2012). Your love lifts me higher! The energizing quality of secure relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 721-733. doi:10.1177/0146167211436117

42.

MacLeod

A. K.

Conway

(2005). Well-being and the anticipation of future positive experiences: The role of income, social networks, and planning ability. Cognition & Emotion, 19, 357-374. doi:10.1080/02699930441000247

43.

Mäkikangas

Kinnunen

(2003). Psychosocial work stressors and well-being: Self-esteem and optimism as moderators in a one-year longitudinal sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 537-557. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00217-9

44.

Mäkikangas

Kinnunen

Feldt

(2004). Self-esteem, dispositional optimism, and health: Evidence from cross-lagged data on employees. Journal of Research in Personality, 38, 556-575. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2004.02.001

45.

Martin

L. L.

Abend

Sedikides

Green

J. D.

(1997). How would it feel if . . . ? Mood as input to a role fulfillment evaluation process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 242-253. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.73.2.242

46.

Merchant

Ford

J. B.

Rose

(2011). How personal nostalgia influences giving to charity. Journal of Business Research, 64, 610-616. doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2010.06.013

47.

Mosing

M. A.

Zietsch

B. P.

Shekar

S. N.

Wright

M. J.

Martin

N. G.

(2009). Genetic and environmental influences on optimism and its relationship to mental and self-rated health: A study of aging twins. Behavior Genetics, 39, 597-604.

48.

Nawas

M. M.

Platt

J. J.

(1965). A future-oriented theory of nostalgia. Journal of Individual Psychology, 21, 51-57.

49.

The New Oxford Dictionary of English. (1998). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

50.

Peetz

Wilson

A. E.

(2008). The temporally extended self: The relation of past and future selves to current identity, motivation, and goal pursuit. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 2, 2090-2106. doi:10.1111/j.1751-9004.2008.00150.x

51.

Pennebaker

J. W.

Booth

R. J.

Francis

M. E.

(2007). Linguistic inquiry and word count: LIWC. Austin, TX: LIWC.net.

52.

Pennebaker

J. W.

Graybeal

(2001). Patterns of natural language use: Disclosure, personality, and social integration. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 10, 90-93. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.00123

53.

Pyszczynski

Greenberg

Solomon

Arndt

Schimel

(2004). Why do people need self-esteem? A theoretical and empirical review. Psychological Bulletin, 130, 435-468. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.130.3.435

54.

Routledge

Arndt

Sedikides

Wildschut

(2008). A blast from the past: The terror management function of nostalgia. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 132-140. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2006.11.001

55.

Routledge

Arndt

Sedikides

Wildschut

Hart

C. M.

Juhl

Schlotz

(2011). The past makes the present meaningful: Nostalgia as an existential resource. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 101, 638-652. doi:10.1037/a0024292

56.

Routledge

Wildschut

Sedikides

Juhl

Arndt

(2012). The power of the past: Nostalgia as a meaning-making resource. Memory, 20, 452-460. doi:10.1080/09658211.2012.677452

57.

Rude

S. S.

Gortner

Pennebaker

J. W.

(2004). Language use of depressed and depression-vulnerable college students. Cognition & Emotion, 18, 1121-1133. doi:10.1080/02699930441000030

58.

Saphire-Bernsteina

Way

B. M.

Kim

H. S.

Sherman

D. K.

Taylor

S. E.

(2011). Oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) is related to psychological resources. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 15118-15122. doi:10.1073/pnas.1113137108/-/DCSupplemental

59.

Schacter

D. L.

Addis

D. R.

(2007). The cognitive neuroscience of constructive memory: Remembering the past and imagining the future. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B Biological Sciences, 362, 773-786. doi:10.1098/rstb.2007.2087

60.

Scheier

M. F.

Carver

(1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 201-228. doi:10.1007/BF01173489

61.

Scheier

M. F.

Carver

C. S.

(1993). On the power of positive thinking: The benefits of being optimistic. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 2, 26-30. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770572

62.

Scheier

M. F.

Carver

C. S.

Bridges

M. W.

(1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 1063-1078. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063

63.

Scheuchzer

J. J.

(1731). De nostalgia. De Bononiensi Scientiarum et Artium Instituto atque Academia Commentarii, I, 307-313.

64.

Sedikides

Hepper

E. G. D.

(2009). Self-improvement. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 3, 899-917.

65.

Sedikides

Skowronski

J. A.

(1997). The symbolic self in evolutionary context. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 80-102.

66.

Sedikides

Wildschut

Arndt

Routledge

(2006). Affect and the self. In Forgas

J. P.

(Ed.), Affect in social thinking and behavior: Frontiers in social psychology (pp. 197-215). New York, NY: Psychology Press.

67.

Sedikides

Wildschut

Arndt

Routledge

(2008). Nostalgia: Past, present, and future. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 17, 304-307. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2008.00595.x

68.

Sedikides

Wildschut

Baden

(2004). Nostalgia: Conceptual issues and existential functions. In Greenberg

Koole

Pyszczynski

(Eds.), Handbook of experimental existential psychology (pp. 200-214). New York, NY: Guilford.

69.

Sedikides

Wildschut

Routledge

Arndt

Hepper

E. G.

Vail

Vingerhoets

A. J. J. M.

(2013). Nostalgia counters self-discontinuity and fosters self-continuity: Implications for well-being. Manuscript submitted for publication.

70.

Segerstrom

S. C.

(2007). Optimism and resources: Effects on each other and on health over 10 years. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 772-786. doi:10.1016/j.jrp.2006.09.004

71.

Stephan

Sedikides

Wildschut

(2012). Mental travel into the past: Differentiating recollections of nostalgic, ordinary, and positive events. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 290-298. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1865

72.

Sterba

(1940). Homesickness and the mother’s breast. Psychiatric Quarterly, 14, 701-707. doi:10.1007/BF01566790

73.

Suddendorf

Corballis

M. C.

(2007). The evolution of foresight: What is mental time travel and is it unique to humans? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 30, 299-313. doi:10.1017/S0140525X07001975

74.

Sweeny

Krizan

(2013). Causes and consequences of expectation trajectories: “High” on optimism in a public referendum. Psychological Science, 24, 706-714. doi:10.1177/0956797612460690.

75.

Symister

Friend

(2003). The influence of social support and problematic support on optimism and depression in chronic illness: A prospective study evaluating self-esteem as a mediator. Health Psychology, 22, 123-129. doi:10.1037//0278-6133.22.2.123

76.

Tabachnick

B. G.

Fidell

L. S.

(2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Pearson.

77.

Tulving

(1985). Memory and consciousness. Canadian Psychologist, 26, 1-12. doi:10.1037/h0080017

78.

Turner

R. N.

Wildschut

Sedikides

(2012). Dropping the weight stigma: Nostalgia improves attitudes toward persons who are overweight. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 130-137. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2011.09.007

79.

Turner

R. N.

Wildschut

Sedikides

Gheorghiu

(2013). Combating the mental health stigma with nostalgia. European Journal of Social Psychology. Advance online publication. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1952

80.

van Tilburg

W. A. P.

Igou

E. R.

Sedikides

(2013). In search of meaningfulness: Nostalgia as an antidote to boredom. Emotion, 13, 450-461. doi:10.1037/a0030442

81.

Verplanken

(2012). When bittersweet turns sour: Adverse effects of nostalgia on habitual worriers. European Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 285-289. doi:10.1002/ejsp.1852

82.

Vess

Arndt

Routledge

Sedikides

Wildschut

(2012). Nostalgia as a resource for the self. Self and Identity, 11, 273-284. doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.521452

83.

Viard

Chételat

Lebreton

Desgranges

Landeau

Sayette

Piolino

(2011). Mental time travel into the past and the future in healthy aged adults: An fMRI study. Brain and Cognition, 75, 1-9. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2010.10.009

84.

Watson

Clark

L. A.

Tellegen

(1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070.

85.

Wildschut

Sedikides

Arndt

Routledge

(2006). Nostalgia: Content, triggers, functions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 975-993. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.91.5.975

86.

Wildschut

Sedikides

Routledge

Arndt

Cordaro

(2010). Nostalgia as a repository of social connectedness: The role of attachment-related avoidance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98, 573-586. doi:10.1037/a0017597

87.

Wilson

Ross

(2003). The identity function of autobiographical memory: Time is on our side. Memory, 11, 137-149. doi:10.1080/741938210

88.

Zauberman

Ratner

R. K.

Kim

B. K.

(2009). Memories as assets: Strategic memory protection over time. Journal of Consumer Research, 35, 715-728. doi:10.1086/592943

89.

Zhou

Sedikides

Wildschut

Gao

D. G.

(2008). Counteracting loneliness: On the restorative function of nostalgia. Psychological Science, 19, 1023-1029. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02194.x

90.

Zhou

Wildschut

Sedikides

Chen

Vingerhoets

A. J. J. M.

(2012). Heartwarming memories: Nostalgia maintains physiological comfort. Emotion, 12, 678-684.

91.

Zhou

Wildschut

Sedikides

Shi

Feng

(2012). Nostalgia: The gift that keeps on giving. Journal of Consumer Research, 39, 39-50. doi:10.1086/662199