An overview discusses (a) the importance of rape attitudes, (b) the major rape attitude measures, and (c) the applicability of four theoretical frameworks of hostility toward women to rape attitude maintenance. Findings from 72 studies of rape attitudes and individual differences were quantitatively synthesized. The meta-analysis revealed more rape acceptance for men, older people, and people from lower socioeconomic status backgrounds. For men, cognitive predispositions toward perpetrating rape were strong predictors of rape acceptance. For women, experience as and exposure to rape victims were associated with slightly less rape acceptance. Consistent with some theoretical predictions, traditional gender role beliefs, adversarial sexual beliefs, needs for power and dominance, aggressiveness and anger, and conservative political beliefs predicted rape acceptance. Implications for rape education programs and research are discussed.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Ajzen, I. , & Fishbein, M. (1977). Attitude-behavior relations: A theoretical analysis and review of empirical research. Psychological Bulle tin, 84, 888-918.
2.
*Anderson, W. P. , & Cummings, K. (1993). Women's acceptance of rape myths and their sexual experiences. Journal of College Student Development34, 53-56.
3.
*Ashton, N. L. (1982). Validation of Rape Myth Acceptance Scale. Psychological Reports, 50, 252.
4.
*Barnett, N. J. , & Feild, H. S. (1977). Sex differences in university students' attitudes toward rape. Journal of College Student Personnel18, 93-96.
5.
*Bartling, C. A. , & Eisenman, R. (1993). Sexual harassment proclivities in men and women. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31, 189-192.
6.
*Bell, S. T. , Kuriloff, P. J., Lottes, I., Nathanson, J., Judge, T., & Fogelson-Turet, E. (1992). Rape callousness in college freshmen: An empirical investigation of the sociocultural model of aggression towards women. Journal of College Student Development, 33, 454-461.
7.
Bem, S. L. (1974). The measurement of psychological androgyny. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 42155-162.
8.
Black, H. C. (1979). Black's law dictionary. St. Paul, MN: West.
9.
*Blumberg, M. L. , & Lester, D. (1991). High school and college students' attitudes toward rape. Adolescence, 26, 727-729.
10.
*Bohner, G. , Weisbrod, C., Raymond, P., Barzvi, A., & Schwarz, N. (1993). Salience of rape affects self-esteem: The moderating role of gender and rape myth acceptance. European Journal of Personality, 23, 561-579.
11.
*Borden, L. A. , Karr, S. K., & Caldwell-Colbert, A. T. (1988). Effects of a university rape prevention program on attitudes and empathy toward rape. Journal of College Student Development, 29, 132-136.
12.
Bourque, L. B. (1989). Defining rape. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
13.
*Brady, E. C. , Chrisler, J. C., Hosdale, D. C., Osowiecki, D. M., & Veal, T. (1990). Date rape: Expectations, avoidance strategies, and attitudes toward victims. Journal of Social Psychology, 131, 427-429.
14.
Briere, J. , & Malamuth, N. (1983). Self-reported likelihood of sexually aggressive behavior: Attitudinal versus sexual explanations. Journal of Research in Personality, 17, 315-323.
15.
*Briere, J. , Malamuth, N., & Check, J. V. P. (1985). Sexuality and rape-supportive beliefs. International Journal of Women's Studies, 8, 398-403.
16.
Brownmiller, S. (1975). Against our will: Men, women and rape. New York: Simon & Schuster.
17.
*Bunting, A. B. , & Reeves, J. B. (1983). Perceived male sex orientation and beliefs about rape. Deviant Behavior, 4, 281-295.
18.
Burt, M. R. (1978). Attitudes supportive of rape in American culture. In House Committee on Science and Technology, Subcommittee on Domestic and International Scientific Planning, Analysis, and Cooperation, Research into violent behavior: Sexual assaults (Hearing, 95th Congress, 2nd session, January 10-12, 1978, pp. 277-322). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
19.
*Burt, M. (1980). Cultural myths and supports for rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 38, 217-230.
20.
Check, J. V. P. (1988). Hostility toward women: Some theoretical considerations. In G. W. Russell (Ed.), Violence in intimate relationships (pp. 29-42). New York: PMA.
21.
*Check, J. V. P., & Malamuth, N. M. (1983). Sex role stereotyping and reactions to depictions of stranger versus acquaintance rape. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45, 344-356.
22.
Cialdini, R. B. , Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1981). Attitude and attitude change. Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 357-404.
23.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
24.
Cohen, M. I. , Garofalo, R., Boucher, R. B., & Seghorn, T. (1977). The psychology of rapists. In D. Chappell, R. Geis, & G. Geis (Eds.), Forcible rape: The cinme, the victim, and the offender (pp. 291-314). New York: Columbia University Press.
25.
Cooper, H. M. (1989). Integrating research: A guide for literature reviews (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA:- Sage.
26.
Cooper, H. , & Hedges, L. V. (Eds.). (1994). The handbook of research synthesis. New York: Russell Sage.
27.
*Corne, S., Briere, J., & Esses, L. M. (1992). Women's attitudes and fantasies about rape as a function of early exposure to pornography. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 7, 454-461.
28.
*Costin, F. (1985). Beliefs about rape and women's social roles. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 319-325.
29.
*Costin, F., & Kaptanoglu, C. (1993). Beliefs about rape and women's social roles: A Turkish replication. European Journal of Social Psychology, 23, 327-330.
30.
*Cowan, G., & Curtis, S. R. (1994). Predictors of rape occurrence and victim blame in the William Kennedy Smith case. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24, 12-20.
31.
*Deitz, S. R., Tiemann Blackwell, K., Daley, P. C., & Bentley, B. J. (1982). Measurement of empathy toward rape victims and rapists. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 372-384.
32.
*Demare, D., Briere, J., & Lips, H. M. (1988). Violent pornography and self-reported likelihood of sexual aggression. Journal of Research in Personality, 22, 140-153.
33.
*Demare, D., Lips, H. M., & Briere, J. (1993). Sexually violent pornography, anti-women attitudes, and sexual aggression: A structural equation model. Journal of Research in Personality, 27, 285-300.
34.
Donnerstein, E. , & Linz, D. (1986). Mass media sexual violence and male viewers. American Behavioral Scientist, 29, 601-618.
35.
*Dull, R. T., & Giacopassi, D. J. (1987). Demographic correlates of sexual and dating attitudes: A study of date rape. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 14, 175-193.
36.
*Dye, E., & Roth, S. (1990). Psychotherapists' knowledge about and attitudes toward sexual assault victim clients. Psychology of Women Quarterl, 14, 191-212.
37.
*Edmonds, E. M., & Cahoon, D. D. (1993). The "new" sexism: Females' negativism toward males. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 8, 481-487.
38.
*Eiswerth-Cox, L. (1993). Sexual assault recovery: The influence of self-blame, feminist identity, and victim attitudes. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University.
39.
*Ellis, A. L., O'Sullivan, C. S., & Sowards, B. A. (1992). The impact of contemplated exposure to a survivor of rape on attitudes toward rape. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 22, 889-895.
40.
*Epps, K. J., Haworth, R., & Swaffer, T. (1993). Attitudes toward women and rape among male adolescents convicted of sexual versus non-sexual crimes. Journal of Psychology, 127, 501-506.
41.
Estep, R. E. , Burt, M. R., & Milligan, H. J. (1977). The socialization of sexual identity. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 39, 99-112.
42.
*Feild, H. (1978). Attitudes toward rape: A comparative analysis of police, rapists, crisis counselors, and citizens. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 156-179.
43.
*Fischer, G. J. (1986). College student attitudes toward forcible date rape: I. Cognitive predictors. Archives of Sex Behavior, 15, 457-466.
44.
Fiske, S. T. , & Taylor, S. E. (1984). Social cognition. New York: Random House.
45.
*Fonow, M. M., Richardson, L., & Wemmerus, V. A. (1992). Feminist rape education: Does it work? Gender and Society, 6, 108-121.
46.
*Garrett-Gooding, J., & Senter, R, Jr. (1987). Attitudes and acts of sexual aggression on a university campus. Sociological Inquiry, 57, 348-371.
47.
Giarrusso, R. , Johnson, P., Goodchilds, J., & Zellman, G. (1979, April). Adolescents' cues and signals: Sex and assault. In P. Johnson (Chair), Acquaintance rape and adolescent sexuality. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Western Psychological Association, San Diego, CA.
48.
*Gihnartin-Zna, P. (1988). Gender differences in students' attitudes toward rape. Sociological Focus, 21, 279-292.
49.
*Gray, N. B., Palileo, G. J., & Johnson, G. D. (1993). Explaining rape victim blame: A test of attribution theory. Sociological Spectrum, 13, 377-392.
50.
*Greendlinger, V., & Byrne, D. (1987). Coercive sexual fantasies of college men as predictors of self-reported likelihood to rape and overt sexual aggression. Journal of Sex Research, 23, 1-11.
51.
*Hall, E. R., Howard, J. A., & Boezio, S. L. (1986). Tolerance of rape: A sexist or antisocial attitude? Psychology of Women Quarterly, 10, 101-118.
52.
*Hamilton, M., & Yee, J. (1990). Rape knowledge and propensity to rape. Journal of Research in Personality, 24, 111-122.
53.
Hedges, L. V. , Cooper, H., & Bushman, B. J. (1992). Testing the null hypothesis in meta-analysis: A comparison of combined probability and confidence interval procedures. Psychological Bulletin, 111, 188-194.
54.
Hedges, L. V. , & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
55.
Heppner, M. J. , Good, G. E., Hillenbrand-Gunn, T. L., Hawkins, A. K., Hacquard, L. L., Nichols, R. K., DeBord, K. A., & Brock, K. J. (1995). Examining sex differences in altering attitudes about rape: A test of the elaboration likelihood mode. Journal of Counseling and Development, 73, 640-647
56.
*Howard, J. A. (1988). A structural approach to sexual attitudes: Interracial patterns in adolescents' judgments about sexual intimacy. Sociological Perspectives, 31, 88-121.
57.
*Huss, M. T., Leak, G. K., & Davis, S. F. (1993). A validation study of the Novaco Anger Inventory. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 31, 279-281.
58.
Ivins, M. (1990, November/December). Why I like Claytie. Mother Jones, pp. 9-10.
59.
*Jenkins, M., & Dambrot, F. H. (1987). The attribution of date rape: Observer's attitudes and sexual experiences and the dating situation. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 10, 875-895.
60.
*Kaczor, L. M., Ryckman, R. M., Thornton, B., & Kuehnel, R. H. (1990). Observer hyper competitiveness and victim precipitation of rape. Journal of Social Psychology, 131, 131-134.
61.
*Koralewski, M. A., & Cohen Conger,J. (1992). The assessment of social skills among sexually coercive college males. Journal of Sex Research, 29, 169-188.
62.
*Koss, M., & Dinero, T. E. (1988). Predictors of sexual aggression among a national sample of male college students. Annals of New York Academy of Sciences, 528, 133-147.
63.
Koss, M. P. , Goodman, L. A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L. F., Puryear Keita, G., & Felipe Russo, N. (1994). No safe haven: Male violence against women at home, at work and in the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
64.
*Lee, H. B., & Cheung, F. M. (1991). The attitudes toward rape victims scale: Reliability and validity in a Chinese context. Sex Roles, 24, 599-603.
65.
*Lester, D., Gronau, F., & Wondrack, K. (1982). The personality and attitudes of female police officers: Needs, androgyny, and attitudes toward rape. Journal of Police Science Administration, 10, 357-360.
66.
Lonsway, K. A. , & Fitzgerald, L. F. (1994). Rape myths: In review. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18, 133-164.
67.
Lottes, I. L. (1988). Rape-supportive attitude scale. In C. M. Davis, W. L. Yarber, & S. L. Davis (Eds.), Sexuality related measures: A compendium (pp. 235-237). Lake Mills, IA: Graphics.
68.
MacDonald, J. M. (1971). Rape: Offenders and their victims. Springfield, IL: Thomas.
69.
Malamuth, N. M. (1981). Rape prodivity among males. Journal of Social Issues, 37, 520-547.
70.
*Malamuth, N. M. (1988). A multidimensional approach to sexual aggression: Combining measures of past behavior and present likelihood. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 528, 123-131.
71.
Malamuth, N. M. (1993). Predicting men's antisocial behavior against women: The interaction model of sexual aggression. In G. C. Nagayama Hall, R. Hirschman, J. R. Graham, & M. S. Zaragoza (Eds.), Sexual aggression: Issues in etiology, assessment, and treatment (pp. 63-97). Washington, DC: Taylor & Francis.
72.
*Malamuth, N. M., & Check, J. V. P. (1981). The effects of mass media exposure on acceptance of violence against women: A field experiment. Journal of Research in Personality, 15, 436-446.
73.
*Malamuth, N. M., & Check, J. V. P. (1985). The effects of aggressive pornography on beliefs in rape myths: Individual differences. Journal of Research in Personality, 19, 299-320.
74.
Malamuth, N. M. , & Donnerstein, E. (1982). The effects of aggressive pornographic mass media stimuli. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 15, pp. 103-136). New York: Academic Press.
75.
Malamuth, N. M. , Sockloskie, R. J., Koss, M. P., & Tanaka, J. S. (1991). The characteristics of aggressors against women: Testing a model using a national sample of college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 670-681.
76.
*Margolin, L., Miller, M., & Moran, P. B. (1989). When a kiss is not just a kiss: Relating violations of consent in kissing to rape myth acceptance. Sex Roles, 20, 231-243.
77.
*Marolla, J., & Scully, D. (1986). Attitudes toward women, violence, and rape: A comparison of convicted rapists and other felons. Deviant Behavior, 7, 337-355.
78.
*Muehlenhard, C. L., & Linton, M. A. (1987). Date rape and sexual aggression in dating situations: Incidence and risk factors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 186-196.
79.
Muehlenhard, C. L. , Powch, I. G., Phelps, J. L., & Giusti, L. M. (1992). Definitions of rape: Scientific and political implications. Journal of Social Issues, 48, 23-44
80.
*Mynatt, C. R., & RiceAllgeier, E. R. (1990). Risk factors, self-attributions, and adjustment problems among victims of sexual coercion. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 130-153.
81.
Nagayama Hall, G. C. , & Hirschman, R. (1991). Toward a theory of sexual aggression: A quadripartite model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 662-669.
82.
National Victim Center, & Crime Victims Research and Treatment Center . (1992). Rape in America: A report to the nation. Arlington, VA: National Victim Center.
83.
*Overholser, J. C., & Beck, S. (1986). Multimethod assessment of rapists, child molesters, and three control groups on behavioral and psychological measures. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 54, 682-687.
84.
Pollard, P. (1992). Judgments about victims and attackers in depicted rapes: A review. British Journal of Social Psychology, 31, 307-326.
85.
*Pryor, J. B. (1987). Sexual harassment proclivties in men. Sex Roles, 17, 269-290.
86.
*Quackenbush, R. L. (1989).A comparison of androgynous, masculine sex-typed, and undifferentiated males on dimensions of attitudes toward rape. Journal of Research in Personality, 23, 318-342.
87.
Rada, R. T. (Ed.). (1978). Clinical aspects of the rapistNew York: Stein & Day.
88.
*Rapaport, K., & Burkhart, B. R. (1984). Personality and attitudinal characteristics of sexually coercive college males. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 216-211.
89.
*Reilly, M. E., Lott, B., Caldwell, D., & DeLuca, L. (1992). Tolerance for sexual harassment related to self-reported sexual victimization. Gender and Society, 6, 122-138.
90.
*Resick, P. A., & Jackson, T. L., Jr. (1981). Attitudes toward rape among mental health professionals. American Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 481-490.
91.
Rosenthal, R. (1994). Parametric measures of effect size. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 231-244). New York: Russell Sage.
92.
*Schwarz, N., & Brand, J. F. (1983). Effects of salience of rape on sex role attitudes, trust, and self-esteem in non-raped women. European Journal of Social Psychology, 13, 71-76.
93.
*Senn, C. Y., & Radtke, H. L. (1990). Women's evaluations of and affective reactions to mainstream violent pornography, nonviolent pornography, and erotica. Vwolence and Victims, 5, 143-155.
94.
Smuts, B. (1992). Male aggression against women: An evolutionary perspective. In J. B. Lancaster (Ed.), Human nature: An interdisciplinary biological perspective (pp. 1-44). New York: Walter de Gruyter.
95.
Spence, J. T. , & Helmreich, R. L. (1972). The Attitudes Toward Women Scale: An objective instrument to measure attitudes toward the rights and roles of women in contemporary society. JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, 2, 1-48.
96.
Spence, J. T. , Helmreich, R., & Stapp, J. (1973). A short version of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale (AWS). Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 2219-220.
97.
*Spence, J. T., Losoff, M., & Robbins, A. (1991). Sexually aggressive tactics in dating relationships: Personality and attitudinal correlates. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 10, 289-304.
98.
*Spohn, R. B. (1993). Social desirability correlates for acceptance of rape myth. Psychological Reports, 73, 12-18.
99.
Texas candidate's comment about rape causes a furor . (1990, March 26). The New York Times, p. A15.
100.
*Thornton, B., Robbins, M. A., & Johnson, J. J. (1981). Social perception of the rape victim's culpability: The influence of respondents' personal-environmental causal attribution tendencies. Human Relations, 34, 225-237.
101.
*Waite, S. M. (1993). College students and the perceived legitimacy of date rape myths: The role of race, gender and level of involvement. Unpublished master's thesis, University of California, Fullerton.
102.
*Walker, W. D., Rowe, R. C., & Quinsey, V. L. (1993). Authoritarianism and sexual aggression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1036-1045.
103.
*Ward, C. (1988). The attitudes toward rape victims scale. Psychology of Women Quarterl, 12, 127-146.
104.
*Weir, J. A., & Wrightsman, L. S. (1990). The determinants of mock jurors' verdicts in a rape case. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 901-919.
105.
Whatley, M. A. (1996). Victim characteristics influencing attributions of responsibility to rape victims: A meta-analysis. Aggression and Violent Behavior, A Rwiew Journal1, 81-95.
106.
Williams, J. E. , & Holmes, K. A. (1981). The second assault: Rape and public attitudes. Westport, CT: Greenwood.
107.
Wyatt, G. E. , Newcomb, M., & Notgrass, C. M. (1991). Internal and external mediators of women's rape experiences. In A. W. Burgess (Ed.), Rape and sexual assault IH: A research handbook (pp. 29-55). New York: Garland.
