The proteins of the body are continuously being broken down and resynthesized. This review discusses the physiological significance of this process, how it can be measured in patients, and how it is altered by malnutrition and various disease states.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Cohn SH, Vartsky D., Yasumura S., et al: Compartmental body composition based on total-body nitrogen, potassium and calcium. Am J Physiol239:E524-E530, 1980
2.
Cahill GF Jr: Starvation in man. N Engl J Med. 282:668-675, 1970
3.
Waterlow JC, Jackson AA: Nutrition and protein turnover in man. Br Med Bull37:5-10, 1981
4.
Waterlow JC, Golden MHN, Garlick PJ: Protein turnover in man measured with 15N glycine: comparison of end products and dose regimens. Am J Physiol235:E165-E174, 1978
5.
Siekevitz P. : The turnover of proteins and the usage of information . J Theor Biol37:321-334, 1972
6.
Meier PR, Peterson RG, Bonds DR, et al: Rates of protein synthesis and turnover in fetal life. Am J Physiol240:E320-E324, 1980
7.
Spady DW, Payne PR, Piwa D., et al: Energy balance during recovery from malnutrition. Am J Clin Nutr29:103-1088, 1976
8.
Goldberg AL, Dice JF: Intracellular protein degradation in mammalian and bacterial cells . Annu Rev Biochem43:845-869, 1974
9.
Schimke RT: Regulation of protein turnover in mammalian tissues. IN Mammalian Protein Metabolism, HN Munro , ed. Academic Press, New York , 1970, pp 177-278
10.
Hopkins HA, Bonney RL, Walker PR et al: IN Weber, G (ed): Advances in Enzyme Regulation, vol II, G Weber, ed. Pergamon, New York, 1973, pp 169-191
11.
Gurr JA, Elvehjem RS, Potter VR: Diurnal variations in rat liver tyrosine amino transferase activity . Life Sci23:1301-1308, 1978
12.
Tsuda M., Shikata Y., Katsunuma T.: Effect of dietary proteins on turnover of rat liver argininosuccinate dehydrogenase . J Biochem85:699-704, 1979
13.
Conde R., Scornik OA: Faster synthesis and degradation of liver protein during developmental growth . Biochem J166:115-121,1977
14.
Conde R., Scornik OA: Role of protein degradation in the growth of liver after a nutritional shift . Biochem J158:385-390, 1976
15.
Krebs HA: IN Advances in Enzyme Regulation, vol 10, G Weber, ed. Pergamon Press, New York, 1972, pp 397-420
16.
Waterlow JC , Stephen JML: Adaptation of the rat to a low protein diet: the effect of a reduced intake on the pattern of L-14C-lysine . Br J Nutr20:461-481, 1966
17.
Moore FD, Brennan MF: Surgical injury: body composition, protein metabolism and neuroendocrinology . IN Manual of Surgical Nutrition, WF Ballinger, JA Collins, WR Drucker, SJ Dudrick et al, eds. Saunders, Philadelphia, 1976, pp 169-222
18.
Picou D., Reeds PJ, Jackson AA et al: The measurement of muscle mass in children using 15N glycine . Pediatr Res10:184-188, 1976
19.
Iio A., Warren S., Broder S., et al: The metabolism of IgE in patients with immunodeficiency deficiency states and neoplastic conditions. J Clin Invest59:743-755, 1977
20.
Parratt D.: Nutrition and immunity. Proc Nutr Soc39:133-140, 1980 21. Gross RL, Newberne PM: Role of nutrition in immunologic function . Physiol Rev60:188-302, 1980
21.
Long CL, Birkhan RH, Geiger JW, et al: Contribution of skeletal muscle protein in elevated rates of whole body protein catabolism in trauma patients. Am J Clin Nutr34:1087-1093, 1981
22.
Stein TP, Leskiw MJ, Wallace HW, et al: Changes in protein synthesis after trauma: importance of nutrition . Am J Physiol233:E348-E355, 1977
23.
Owen OE, Reichard GA, Boden G., et al: Interrelationships among key tissues in the metabolic utilization of substrates. IN Advances of Modern Nutrition, HM Katzen, RI Mahler , eds. Wiley, New York, 1978, pp 517-550
24.
Ansley JD, Isaacs JW, Rikkers LD, et al: Quantitative tests of nitrogen metabolism in cirrhosis: relation to other manifestations of liver disease. Gastroenterology , 75:570-579, 1978
25.
Fischer JF: The etiology of hepatic encepalopathy-nutritional implications. Acta Chir Scand Suppl507:50-68, 1981
26.
Lieber CS: Alcohol, injury and protein metabolism. Gastroenterology79:373-390, 1980
27.
Cahill GF: Ketosis. JPEN5:281-287, 1981
28.
Mullen JL: Consequences of malnutrition in the surgical patient, Surg Clin N Am61:465-489, 1981
29.
Rombeau JL, Settle RG, Melnick G., et al: Contemporary nutritional support in VA Medical centers. Nutr Support Services2:12-15, 1982
30.
O'Keefe SJD , Abraham RR, Davis M., et al: Protein turnover in acute and chronic liver disease. Acta Chir Scand Suppl507:91-101, 1981
31.
Dice JF, Walker CD, Byrne B., et al: General characteristics of protein degradation in diabetes and starvation. Proc Natl Acad Sci75:2093-2097, 1978
32.
Dice JF, Hess EJ, Goldberg AL: Studies on the relationship between the degradative rates of proteins in vivo and their isoelectric points. Biochem J178:305-312, 1979
33.
Dayton MR, Goll DE, Stoner MR, et al: Some properties of a Ca++ activated protease that may be involved in myofibrillar turnover. Cold Spring Harbor Lab Symp21:551-577, 1975
34.
San Pietro A., Rittenberg D.: A study of the rate of protein synthesis in humans. II. Measurement of the metabolic pool and the rate of protein synthesis . J Biol Chem201:457-473, 1953
35.
Munro HN: Free amino acid pools and their regulation. IN Mammalian Protein Metabolism, vol IV, HN Munro, ed. Academic Press, New York, 1970, pp 177-228
36.
Golden MHN , Waterlow JC: Total protein synthesis in elderly people: a comparison of results with 15N glycine and 14C leucine. Clin Sci53:277-288, 1977
37.
Waterlow JC, Garlick PJ, Millward DJ: Protein Turnover in Mammalian Tissues and the Whole Body. North Holland, Amsterdam
38.
Mathews DM, Motil KJ, Rohrbaugh DK, et al: Measurement of leucine metabolism in man from a primed continuous infusion of L-1-13C leucine. Am J Physiol238:E473-E449, 1980
39.
Burke JF, Wolfe RR, Mulhaney CJ, et al: Glucose requirements following burn injury. Ann Surg190:274-285, 1980
40.
Hammond MW, Howard CP, Miles JM, et al: Determination of leucine flux in vivo by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry utilizing stable isotopes for the tracer and internal standard . J Chromatogr183:403-409, 1980
41.
Irving CS, Nissim I., Lapidot A.: The determination of amino acid pool sizes and turnover rates by gas chromatographic mass spectrometric analysis of stable isotope enrichment. Biomed Mass Spec5:117-122, 1978
42.
Birkhan RH, Long CL, Fitkin D., et al: Whole body protein metabolism due to trauma in man as estimated by N-15N alanine. Am J Physiol241:E64-E71, 1981
43.
Garlick PJ, Clugston GA, Waterlow JC: Influence of low energy diets on whole body protein turnover in obese subjects . Am J Physiol238:E235-E244, 1980
44.
Garlick PJ, McNurlan MA, Fern EB, et al: Protein synthesis and breakdown after vaccination. Br Med J283:263-265, 1980
45.
Garlick PJ, Waterlow JC, Swick RW: Measurement of protein turnover in rat liver. Analysis of the complex curve for decay of label in a mixture of proteins. Biochem J156:657-663, 1976
46.
Stein TP, Leskiw MJ, Buzby GP, et al: Measurement of protein synthesis rates with 15N glycine. Am J Physiol239:G280-G287, 1980
47.
Zak R., Martin AF, Blough R.: Assessment of protein turnover by use of radioisotopic tracers. Physiol Rev59:407-447, 1979
48.
James WPT , Sender PM, Garlick PJ, et al: Studies of amino acid and protein metabolism in normal man with 1-14C tyrosine. Clin Sci50:525-532, 1976
49.
James WPT , Sender PM, Garlick PJ, et al: The choice of label and measurement technique in tracer studies of body protein metabolism in man. IN Dynamic Studies with Radioisotopes in Medicine. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, 1976, pp 461-472
50.
Tarunga M., Jackson AA, Golden MHN: Comparison of 15N labeled glycine, aspartate, valine and leucine for measurement of whole body protein turnover. Clin Sci57:281-283, 1979
51.
Stein TP: 15N glycine as a tracer to study protein metabolism in vivo. IN Human Nitrogen Metabolism, JC Waterlow , JML Stephen, eds. Interscience, In press
52.
Conway JM, Mathews DE, Young VR, et al: The fate of glycine nitrogen in vivo on 3 levels of dietary protein intake. Clin Res28:594A, 1980
53.
Ang SD, Stein TP, Leskiw MJ, et al:Protein synthesis as measured with 15N glycine and clinical outome . Fed Proc 41:436, 1982 (Abstr)
54.
Garlick PJ, Clugston GA, Swick RW, et al: Diurnal pattern of protein and energy metabolism in man. Am J Clin Nutr33:1983-1986, 1980
55.
Golden MHN , Waterlow JC, Picou D.: Protein turnover synthesis before and after recovery from protein-energy malnutrition . Clin Sci53:473-477, 1977
56.
Millward DJ , Garlick PJ, Nnanyelugo DO, et al: The relative importance of muscle protein synthesis and breakdown in the regulation of muscle mass. Biochem J156:185-188, 1976
57.
Birkhahn RH , Long CL, Fitkin D., et al: Effects of major skeletal trauma on whole body protein turnover in man measured by L-1,14C leucine. Surgery, 88:294-300, 1980
58.
Maruyama K. , Sunde ML, Swick RW: Growth and muscle protein turnover in the chick. Biochem J176:573-582, 1978
59.
Schonheyder F., Heilskov NSC, Olesen K.: Isotopic studies on the mechanism of negative nitrogen balance produced by immobilization. Scand J Clin Lab Invest6:178-188, 1954
60.
Wolfe RR, Goodenough R., Wolfe MH, et al: Analysis of the effect of exercise on leucine and urea metabolism in humans using stable isotopes. J Appl Physiol In press
61.
Rennie MJ, Davies CTM, Waterlow JC, et al: The effect of long term strenuous exercise on nitrogen excretion and whole body protein flux in man. Eur J Clin Invest9:29, 1980
62.
Settle RG, Howard KA, Diamond CE, et al: The effect of physical fitness on protein synthesis in non-excercising males. Biochem Med In press
63.
Pencharz PB , Parsons H., Motil K., et al: Total body protein turnover in children: is it a futile cycle. Med Hypotheses7:155-160, 1980
64.
Pencharz PB , Steffee WP, Cochran W., et al: Protein metabolism in human neonates: nitrogen balance studies, estimated obligatory losses of nitrogen and whole-body turnover of nitrogen. Clin Sci Mol Med52:485-498, 1977
65.
O'Keefe, SJD , Sender PM, James WPT: "Catabolic" loss of body nitrogen in response to surgery. Lancet2:1035-1037, 1974
66.
Crane CW, Picou D., Smith R., et al: Protein turnover before and after elective orthopedic operations . Br J Surg64:129-133, 1977
67.
Blackburn GL , Moldauer LL, Usui S., et al: Branch chain amino acid administration and metabolism during starvation, injury and infection . Surgery86:307-315, 1979
68.
Moldauer LL , O'Keefe SJD, Bothe A. Jr, et al: In vivo demonstration of the nitrogen sparing mechanisms for glucose and amino acids in the injured rat. Metabolism29:173-180, 1980
69.
Kien CL, Young VR, Rohrbaugh DK, et al: Increased rates of whole body protein synthesis and breakdown in children recoverin from burns. Ann Surg187:383-391, 1978
70.
Long CL, Jeevanandam M., Kim BM, et al: Whole body protein synthesis and catabolism in septic man. Am J Clin Nutr30:1340-1344, 1977
71.
Kien CL, Young VR, Rohrbaugh DK, et al: Whole body protein synthesis and breakdown rates in children before and after reconstructive surgery of the skin. Metabolism27:27-34, 1978 73. Halliday D., McKeran RO: Measurement of muscle protein synthetic rate from serial muscle biopsies and total body protein turnover in man by continuous infusion of L-alpha-15N lysine. Clin Sci49:581-590, 1975
72.
Young VR, Munro HN: 3-Methyl histidine and muscle protein turnover: an overview. Fed Proc37:2291-2300, 1978
73.
Sloan GM, Norton JA, Brennan MF: Influence of diabetes mellitus and insulin treatment on protein turnover in the rat. J Surg Res28:442-448, 1980
74.
Wool IG, Stirewalt WS, Kurihara K., et al: Mode of Action of insulin in the regulation of protein biosynthesis in muscle. Recent Prog Horm Res24:139-187, 1968
75.
Carmichael MJ, Clague MB, Kier MJ, et al: Whole body protein turnover, synthesis and breakdown in patients with colorectal carcinoma. Br J Surg67:736-739, 1980
76.
Stein TP, Buzby GP, Rosato EF, et al: Effects of parenteral nutrition on protein synthesis in adult cancer patients. Am J Clin Nutr34:1484-1488, 1981
77.
Norton JA, Stein TP, Brennan MF: Protein metabolism in patients with and without known cancer. Ann Surg, 194:123-128, 1981
78.
Burt ME, Stein TP, Schwabe JG, et al: Effect of total parenteral nutrition on protein metabolism in man. Am J Clin Nutr34:628, 1981 (Abstr)
79.
Dickens F.: Cancer as a problem in tissue metabolism. Cancer Rev56:56-97, 1931
80.
Gold J.: Cancer cachexia and gluconeogenesis. Ann NY Acad Sci230:103-110, 1974
81.
Cohn SH, Gartenhaus W., Sawitsky A., et al: Compartmental body composition of cancer patients by measurement of total body nitrogen, potassium and water. Metabolism30:222-229, 1981
82.
Watson WS, Sammon AM: Body composition in cachexia resulting from malignant and non-malignant diseases . Cancer46:2041-2046, 1980
83.
Mullen JL, Buzby GP, Stein TP, et al: Protein synthesis dynamics in human gastrointestinal malignancies . Surgery88:331-339, 1980
84.
Stein TP, Mullen JL, Oram-Smith JC, et al: Relative rates of human gastro-intestinal tumor, normal tissue, liver and fibrinogen protein synthesis. Am J Physiol234:E648-E652, 1978
