The authors conducted five studies to examine the interactive effects of hurricane-induced job stress and perceived resources on job satisfaction, job tension, and work effort. The authors hypothesized that heightened hurricane-induced job stress would increase adverse reactions for those with fewer perceived resources. Conversely, the authors expected higher levels of perceived resources to neutralize these effects. Results support the hypothesis across studies. Interestingly, job satisfaction improved for those with high levels of perceived resources as hurricane-induced job stress increased in two studies. The authors discuss theoretical implications for traumatic and general stress research, as well as practice, and provide directions for future research.
Aiken, L., & West, S.1991. Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
2.
Aldwin, C., & Levenson, M.2001. Stress, coping, and health at mid-life: A developmental perspective. In M. Lachman (Ed.), The handbook of midlife development: 188-214. New York : John Wiley.
3.
Arata, C., Picou, J., Johnson, G., & McNally, T.2000. Coping with technological disaster: An application of the conservation of resources model to Exxon Valdez oil spill. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 13: 23-29.
4.
Aspinwall, L.2005. The psychology of future-oriented thinking: From achievement to proactive coping, adaptation and aging. Motivation and Emotion, 29: 203-235.
5.
Aspinwall, L., & Taylor, S.1998. A stitch in time: Self-regulation and proactive coping . Psychological Bulletin, 121: 417-436.
6.
Bakker, A., Demerouti, E., & Euwema, M.2005. Job resources buffer the impact of job demands on burnout . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 10: 170-180.
7.
Begley, T., Lee, C., & Czajka, J.2000. The relationship of Type A behavior and optimism with job performance and physiological health. Journal of Business & Psychology, 15: 215-227.
8.
Benight, C., & Harper, M.2002. Coping self-efficacy as a mediator for distress following multiple natural disasters. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15: 177-186.
9.
Benight, C., Swift, E., Sanger, J., Smith, A., & Zeppelin, D.1999. Coping self-efficacy as a prime mediator of distress following a natural disaster. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29: 2443-2464.
10.
Benotsch, E., Brailey, K., Vasterling, J., Uddo, M., Constans, J., & Sutker, P.2000. War zone stress, personal and environmental resources, and PTSD symptoms in Gulf War veterans: A longitudinal perspective. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109: 205-213.
11.
Bolton, E., Holahan, D., King, L., & King, D.2004. Acute and post-traumatic stress disorder. In J. Thomas & M. Hersen (Eds.), Psychology in the workplace: Recognition and adaptation: 119-131. New York: Brunner-Routledge .
12.
Bourque, L., Siegel, J., Kano, M., & Wood, M.2006. Weathering the storm: The impact of hurricanes on physical and mental health. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 60: 129-150.
13.
Brayfield, A., & Rothe, H.1951. An index of job satisfaction. Journal of Applied Psychology, 35: 307-311.
14.
Breslau, N., Davis, G., Andreski, P., & Peterson, E.1991. Traumatic events and PTSD in an urban population of young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48: 216-222.
15.
Brief, A., Burke, M., George, I., Robinson, B., & Webster, J.1988. Should negative affectivity remain an unmeasured variable in the study of job stress? Journal of Applied Psychology , 73: 193-198.
16.
Brown, S., & Leigh, T.1996. A new look at psychological climate and its relationship to job involvement, effort, and performance. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81: 358-368.
17.
Bryant, R., & Harvey, A. (2003). Gender differences in the relationship between acute stress disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder following motor vehicle accidents. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry , 37: 226-229.
18.
Burby, R.2006. Hurricane Katrina and the paradoxes of government disaster policy. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 3: 1-23.
19.
Byron, K., & Peterson, S.2002. The impact of a large-scale traumatic event on individual and organizational outcomes: Exploring employee and company reactions to September 11, 2001. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 23: 895-910.
20.
Chatterjee, S., & Price, B.1991. Regression diagnostics. New York: John Wiley.
21.
Dekel, R., & Hobfoll, S.2007. The impact of resource loss on Holocaust survivors facing war and terrorism in Israel. Aging & Mental Health, 11: 159-167.
22.
de Jonge, J., & Dormann, C.2006. Stressors, resources, and strain at work: A longitudinal test of the Triple-Match Principle. Journal of Applied Psychology , 91: 1359-1374.
23.
Demerouti, E.2006. Job characteristics, flow, and performance: The moderating role of conscientiousness. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 11: 266-280.
24.
Diener, E., & Fujita, F.1995. Resources, personal strivings, and subjective well-being: A nomothetic and idiographic approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68: 926-935.
25.
Diong, S., Bishop, G., Enkelmann, H., Tong, W., Why, Y., Ang, J., & Khader, M.2005. Anger, stress, coping, social support and health: Modeling the relationships. Psychology and Health, 20: 467-495.
26.
Dwyer, D., & Ganster, D.1991. The effects of job demands and control on employee attendance and satisfaction. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 12: 595-608.
27.
Eden, D.2001. Job stress and respite relief: Overcoming high-tech tethers . In P. Perrewé & D. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being: Exploring theoretical mechanisms and perspectives: 143-194. Amsterdam: JAI.
28.
Elliot, J., & Pais, J.2006. Race, class and hurricane Katrina: Social differences in human responses to disaster. Social Science Research, 35: 295-321.
29.
Ertel, M., Pech, E., Ullsperger, P., von dem Knesebeck, O., & Siegrist, J.2005. Adverse psychosocial working conditions and subjective health in freelance media workers. Work & Stress, 19: 293-299.
30.
Falsetti, S., Erwin, B., Resnick, H., Davis, J., & Combs-Lane, A.2003. Multiple channel exposure therapy of PTSD: Impact of treatment on functioning and resources. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 17: 133-147.
31.
Ferris, G., Bowen, M., Treadway, D., Hochwarter, W., Hall, A., & Perrewé, P.2006. The assumed linearity of organizational phenomena: Implications for occupational stress and well-being. In P. Perrewé & D. Ganster (Eds.), Research in occupational stress and well-being: 205-232. Oxford, UK: Elsevier Science Ltd.
32.
Ferris, G., Hochwarter, W., & Matherly, T.2007. HRM after 9/11 and Katrina. In S. Werner, S. Jackson, & R. Schuler (Eds.), Current Issues in North American HRM: 172-185. New York: Taylor and Francis.
33.
Figley C.1995. Compassion fatigue as secondary traumatic stress disorder: An overview. In C. Figley (Ed.), Compassion fatigue: 1-20. New York: Brunner/Mazel .
34.
Fletcher, L., Pham, P., Stover, E., & Vinck, P.2007. Latino workers and human rights in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina. Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law, 28: 107.
35.
Fredrickson, B.2001. The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56: 218-226.
Freedy, J., Kilpatrick, D., & Resnick, H.1993. Natural disasters and mental health: Theory, assessment, and intervention. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality , 8: 49-103.
38.
Freedy, J., Saladin, M., Kilpatrick, D., Resnick, H., & Saunders, B.1994. Understanding acute psychological distress following natural disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7: 257-273.
39.
Freedy, J., Shaw, D., Jarrell, M., & Masters, C.1992. Towards an understanding of the psychological impact of natural disasters: An application of the conservation of resources stress model. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 5: 441-454.
40.
Fritz, C., & Sonnentag, S.2006. Vacation, well-being, and job performance: The role of work load and specific leisure experiences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 936-945.
41.
Grandey, A., & Cropanzano, R.1999. The conservation of resources model applied to work-family conflict and strain. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 54: 350-370.
42.
Hendrix, W., Spencer, B., & Gibson, G.1994. Organizational and extraorganizational factors affecting stress, employee well-being, and absenteeism for males and females. Journal of Business & Psychology, 9: 103-128.
43.
Hobfoll, S.1989. Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44: 513-524.
44.
Hobfoll, S.1991. Traumatic stress: A theory based on rapid loss of resources . Anxiety Research, 4: 187-197.
45.
Hobfoll, S.2001. The influence of culture, community, and the nest-self in the stress process: Advancing conservation of resources theory. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 50: 337-421.
46.
Hobfoll, S.2002. Social and psychological resources and adaptations. Review of General Psychology, 6: 302-324.
47.
Hobfoll, S., Briggs-Phillips, M., & Stines, L.2003. Fact or artifact: The relationship of hope to a caravan of resources. In R. Jacoby & G. Keinan (Eds.), Between stress and hope: From a disease-centered to a health-centered perspective: 81-104. Westport, CT: Praeger.
48.
Hobfoll, S., Hall, B., Canetti-Nisim, D., Galea, S., Johnson, R., & Palmieri, P.2007. Refining our understanding of traumatic growth in the face of terrorism: Moving from meaningful cognitions to what is meaningful . Applied Psychology: An International Review, 56: 345-366.
49.
Hobfoll, S., & Lilly, R.1993. Resource conservation as a strategy for community psychology . Journal of Community Psychology, 21: 128-148.
50.
Hobfoll, S., Tracy, M., & Galea, S.2006. The impact of resource loss and traumatic growth on probable PTSD and depression following terrorist attack. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 19: 867-878.
51.
Hochwarter, W., Perrewé, P., Meurs, J., & Kacmar, C.2007. The interactive effects of work-induced guilt and ability to manage resources on job and life satisfaction. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12: 125-135.
52.
House, R., & Rizzo, J.1972. Role conflict and ambiguity as critical variables in a model of organizational behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 7: 467-505.
53.
Hulin, C., & Judge, T.2003. Job attitudes: A theoretical and empirical review. In W. Borman, D. Ilgen, & R. Klimoski (Eds.), Handbook of psychology: 255-276. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
54.
Ironson, G., Wynings, C., Schneiderman, N., Baum, A., Rodriguez, M., Greenwood, D., Benight, C., Antoni, M., LaPerriere, A., Huang, H., & Fletcher, M.1997. Posttraumatic stress symptoms, intrusive thoughts, loss, and immune function after Hurricane Andrew. Psychosomatic Medicine, 59: 128-141.
55.
Jaccard, J., Wan, C., & Turrisi, R.1990. The detection and interpretation of interaction effects between continuous variables in multiple regression. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25: 467-478.
56.
Kaiser, C., Sattler, D., Bellack, D., & Dersin, J.1996. A conservation of resources approach to a natural disaster: Sense of coherence and psychological distress. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 11: 459-476.
57.
Kaniasty, K., & Norris, F.1995. In search of altruistic community: Patterns of social support mobilization following Hurricane Hugo. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23: 447-477.
58.
Karasek, R.1979. Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly , 24: 285-306.
59.
King, A., Winett, R., & Lovett, S.1986. Enhancing coping behaviors in at-risk populations: The effects of time-management instruction and social support in women from dual-earner families. Behavior Therapy, 19: 75-83.
60.
Kleber, R., & van der Velden, P.1996. Acute stress at work. In M. Schabracq, J. Winnubst & C. Cooper (Eds.), Handbook of work and health psychology: 295-310. New York: Wiley.
61.
Lane, C., & Hobfoll, S.1992. How loss affects anger and alienates potential supporters . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60: 935-942.
62.
Locke, E.1969. What is job satisfaction?Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4: 309-336.
63.
Lutgendorf, S., Antoni, M., Ironson, G., Fletcher, M., Penedo, F., Baum, A., Schneiderman, N., & Klimas, N.1995. Physical symptoms of chronic fatigue syndrome are exacerbated by the stress of Hurricane Andrew. Psychosomatic Medicine , 57: 310-323.
64.
Matteson, M., & Ivancevich, J.1982. Managing job stress and health . New York: The Free Press.
65.
Meijman, T., & Mulder, G.1998. Psychological aspects of workload. In P. Drenth & H. Thierry (Eds.), Handbook of work and organizational psychology . Vol. 2: Work psychology: 5-33. Hove , UK: Psychology Press.
66.
Monnier, J., Cameron, R., Hobfoll, S., & Gribble, J.2002. The impact of resource loss and critical incidents on psychological functioning in fire-emergency workers: A pilot study. International Journal of Stress Management, 9: 11-29.
67.
Morris, J., & Coley, R., 2004. Maternal, family, and work correlates of role strain in low-income mothers. Journal of Family Psychology, 18: 424-432.
68.
Mukherejee, P., & Alpert, J.2006. Overview of psychological interventions in the acute aftermath of disasters. In L. Barbanel & R. Sternberg (Eds.), Psychological interventions in times of crisis: 3-35. New York: Springer.
69.
Muraven, M., & Baumeister, R.2000. Self-regulation and depletion of limited resources: Does self-control resemble a muscle? Psychological Bulletin, 126: 247-259.
70.
Muraven, M., Shmueli, D., Burkley. E.2006. Conserving self-control strength. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91: 524-537.
71.
Nandi, A., Galea, T., Ahern, J., Resnick, H., Gershon, R., & Vlahov, D.2004. Job loss, unemployment, work stress, job satisfaction, and the persistence of posttraumatic stress disorder one year after the September 11 attacks. Journal of Occupational Environmental Medicine , 46: 1057-1064.
72.
Noblet, A., Rodwell, J., & McWilliams, J.2006. Organizational change in the public sector: Augmenting the demand control model to predict employee outcomes under New Public Management. Work & Stress, 20: 335-352.
73.
Norris, F.1992. The epidemiology of trauma: Frequency and impact of different potentially traumatic events on different demographic groups. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60: 409-418.
74.
Norris, F., Perilla, J., Riad, J., Kaniasty, K., & Lavizzo, E.1999. Stability and change in stress, resources, and psychological distress following natural disaster: Findings from Hurricane Andrew. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 12: 363-396.
75.
Olff, M., Langeland, W., Draijer, N., & Gersons, B.2007. Gender differences in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder. Psychological Bulletin, 133: 183-204.
76.
Page, S., & Risser, W.2006. Katrina struggle goes on for many. http://www.usatoday.com/news/polls/tables/live/2006-08-20-katrina-poll.htm . Accessed April 1, 2006.
77.
Perrewé, P., & Spector, P.2002. Personality research in the organizational sciences. In G. Ferris (Ed.), Research in personnel and human resources management: 1-65. Oxford, UK: JAI Press, Elsevier Science, Inc.
78.
Perry, R., & Lindell, M.2003. Preparing for emergency response: Guidelines of the emergency planning process. Disaster, 27: 336-350.
79.
Podsakoff, P., MacKenzie, S., Lee, J., & Podsakoff, N.2003. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 879-903.
80.
Propper, R., Stickgold, R., Keeley, R., & Christman, S.2007. Is television traumatic? Dreams, stress, and media exposure in the aftermath of September 11, 2001. Psychological Science , 18: 334-340.
81.
Riolli, L., Savicki, V., & Cepani, A.2002. Resilience in the face of catastrophe: Optimism, personality and coping in the Kosovo crisis. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32: 1604-1627.
82.
Roese, N., & Olson, J.2007.Better, stronger, faster: Self-serving judgment, affect regulation, and the optimal vigilance hypothesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2: 124-141.
83.
Ryan, A., West, B., & Carr, J.2003. Effects of the terrorist attacks on 9/11/01 on employee attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88: 647-659.
84.
Ryan, R., & Deci, E.2000. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist , 55: 68-78.
85.
Sanchez, J., Korbin, W., & Viscarra, D.1995. Corporate support in the aftermath of a natural disaster: Effects on employee strains. Academy of Management Journal , 38: 504-521.
86.
Sattler, D., Preston, A., Kaiser, C., Olivera, V., Valdez, J., & Schuster, S.2002. Hurricane Georges: A cross-national study examining preparedness, resource loss, and psychological distress in the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic, and the United States. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 15: 339-350.
87.
Sattler, D., Sattler, J., Kaiser, C., Hamby, B., Adams, M., Love, L., Winkler, J., Abu-Ukkaz, C., Watts, B., & Beatty, A.1995. Hurricane Andrew: Psychological distress among shelter victims. International Journal of Stress Management, 2: 133-143.
88.
Schönpflug, W.1985. Goal directed behavior as a source of stress: Psychological origins and consequences of inefficiency. In M. Frese & J. Sabine (Eds.), Goal-directed behavior: The concept of action in psychology: 172-188. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
89.
Schuster M., Stein B., Jaycox L., Collins R., Marshall G., Elliott M., Zhou A., Kanouse, D., Morrison J., & Berry, S.2001. A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks. New England Journal of Medicine , 345: 1507-1512.
90.
Schwarzer, R.2001. Stress, resources, and proactive coping. Applied Psychology : An International Journal, 50: 400-407.
91.
Schwarzer, R., & Taubert, S.2002. Tenacious goal pursuits and striving toward personal growth: Proactive coping. In E. Fydenberg (Ed.), Beyond coping: Meeting goals, visions and challenges: 19-35. London : Oxford University.
92.
Siegrist, J.1996. Adverse health effects of high effort-low reward conditions . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 1: 27-41.
93.
Smith, S., & McCarty, C.2005. The demographic impact of the 2004 hurricane season in Florida. Florida Focus, 1: 1-9.
94.
Solomon, S.1989. Research issues in assessing disaster's effects. In R. Gist & B. Lubin (Eds.), Psychosocial aspects of disasters: 308-340 . New York: John Wiley.
95.
Sonnentag, S., & Fritz, C.2007. The Recovery Experience Questionnaire: Development and validation of a measure for assessing recuperation and unwinding from work . Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 12: 204-221.
96.
Sonnentag, S., & Zijlstra, F.2006. Job characteristics and off-job activities as predictors of need for recovery, well-being, and fatigue. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91: 330-350.
97.
Stine, R. (1995). Graphical interpretation of variance inflation factors. The American Statistician, 49: 53-56.
98.
Sumer, N., Karanchi, A., Berument, S., & Gunes, H.2005. Personal resources, coping self-efficacy, and quake exposure as predictors of psychological distress following the 1999 earthquakes in Turkey. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18: 331-342.
99.
Tedeschi R., & Calhoun L. (1995). Trauma and transformation: Growing in the aftermath of suffering. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
100.
Tourangeau, R., Rips, L., & Rasinski, K.2000. The psychology of survey response. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
101.
Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D.1974. Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185: 1124-1131.
102.
Van Vegchel, N., de Jonge, J., & Landbergis, P.2005. Occupational stress in (inter) action: The interplay between job demands and job resources. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26: 535-560.
103.
Wagner, D., Heinrichs, D., & Ehlert, U.1998. Prevalence of symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder in German professional firefighters. American Journal of Psychiatry , 155: 1727-1732.
104.
Warr, P. (1987). Work, unemployment, and mental health. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
105.
Watson, D., Clark, L., & Tellegen, A.1988. Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: The PANAS scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54: 1063-1070.
106.
Westphal, M., & Bonanno, G.2007. Postraumatic growth and resilience to trauma: Different sides of the same coin or different coins? Applied Psychology: An International Review, 56: 417-427.
107.
Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A., Demerouti, E. & Schaufeli, W.B.2007. The role of personal resources in the Job Demands-Resources Model. International Journal of Stress Management, 14: 121-141.
108.
Xie, J.1996. Karasek's model in the People's Republic of China: Effects of job demands, control, and individual differences. Academy of Management Journal, 39: 1594-1618.
