Students identified with disabilities are increasingly being educated with the assistance of support services within heterogeneous (i.e., general education) classrooms. Yet, in this era of high-stakes accountability, students are labeled, sorted, and differentially treated according to their academic achievement as reflected on standardized tests. We engaged in a project to better understand how educators grapple with these externally imposed pressures as they work to change the organizational structure of their schools to be able to implement greater inclusion of their students served by special education. We spent four years in two elementary schools engaged in inclusive school reform (shifting from exclusionary model to an inclusive one) specifically as a response to the pressures of test-based accountability mandates. Our work was guided by the following questions. In this era of high-stakes testing accountability:
• What does school-wide inclusive reform for students with disabilities involve?
• What kinds of changes can result from inclusive reform?
• What role does leadership play in inclusive reform?
The article focuses on what inclusive reform involved, the resulting changes, and the role distributed leadership played in moving toward more inclusive service in the age of high-stakes accountability.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ArtilesA. J., Harris-MurriN., & RostenbergD. (2006). Inclusion as social justice: Critical notes on discourses, assumptions, and the road ahead. Theory into Practice, 45, 260–268).
2.
ArtilesA. J., & KozleskiE. B. (2007). Beyond convictions: Interrogating culture, history, and power in inclusive education. Journal of Language Arts, 84(4), 351–358).
3.
BakerE. T., WangM. C., & WalbergH. J. (1994). The effects of inclusion on learning. Educational Leadership, 52(4), 33–35).
4.
BogdanR. C., & BiklenS. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and methods. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
5.
Causton-TheoharisJ., & TheoharisG. (2008, September). Creating inclusive schools for ALL Students. The School Administrator, 24–30).
6.
ColeC. M., WaldronN., & MajdM. (2004). Academic progress of students across inclusive and traditional settings. Mental Retardation, 42(2), 136–144).
7.
ConnorD. J. (2010). Adding urban complexities into the mix: Continued resistance to the inclusion of students with cognitive impairments. In SmithP. (Ed.), Whatever happened to inclusion? The place of students with intellectual disabilities in education (pp. 157–187)). New York, NY: Peter Lang.
8.
CosierM., Causton-TheoharisJ., & TheoharisG. (2013). Does access matter? Time in general education and achievement for students with disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 34(6), 323–332).
9.
CreswellJ. W. (2002). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
10.
DawsonH., DelquadriJ., GreenwoodC., HamiltonS., LedfordD., MortweetS., … WalkerD. (1999). Class-wide peer tutoring: Teaching students with mild retardation in inclusive classrooms. Council for Exceptional Children, 524–536).
11.
DiPaolaM., Tschannen-MoranM., & Walther-ThomasC. (2004). School principals and special education: Creating the context for academic success. Focus on Exceptional Children, 37(1), 1–10).
12.
FierrosE. G., & ConroyJ. W. (2002). Double jeopardy: An exploration of restrictiveness and race in special education. In LosenD.J., & OrfieldG. (Eds.), Racial inequity in special education (pp. 39–70)). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.
13.
FisherM., & MeyerL. (2002). Development and social competence after two years for students enrolled in inclusive and self-contained educational programs. Research & Practice for Persons With Severe Disabilities, 27(3) 165–174).
14.
FisherD., PumpianI., & SaxC. (1998). High school students’ attitudes about and recommendations for their peers with significant disabilities. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 23(3), 272–282).
15.
FratturaE., & CapperC. A. (2007). Leading for social justice: Transforming schools for all learners. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
16.
FreemanS., & AlkinM. (2000). Academic and social attainments of children with mental retardation in general education and special education settings. Remedial and Special Education, 21(1), 3–18).
17.
FriendM., & BursuckW. (2012). Including students with special needs: A practical guide for classroom teachers (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
18.
FryxellD., & KennedyC. H. (1995). Placement along the continuum of services and its impact on students’ social relationships. Journal of the Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps, 20, 259–269).
19.
GartnerA., & LipskyD. K. (2004). Beyond special education. In DanforthS., & TaftS.D. (Eds.), Critical readings in special education (pp. 190–210)). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
20.
GlaserG. B., & StraussA. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Co.
21.
HardmanM. L., & DawsonS. (2008). The impact of federal public policy on curriculum and instruction for students with disabilities in the general education classroom. Preventing School Failure, 52(2), 5–11).
22.
HuntP., & GoetzL. (1997). Research on inclusive education programs, practices, and outcomes for students with severe disabilities. Journal of Special Education, 31(1), 3–29).
23.
Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, 20 U.S.C. 1401 et seq. (2004). (Reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1990).
24.
KennedyC., ShulkaS., & FryxellD. (1997). Comparing the effects of educational placement on the social relationships of intermediate school students with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 64(1), 31–48).
25.
McDonnellJ., Mathot-BuckerC., ThorsonN., & FisterS. (2001). Supporting the inclusion of students with moderate and severe disabilities in junior high school general education classes: The effects of class-wide peer tutoring, multi-element curriculum and accommodations. Education and Treatment of Children, 24(2), 141–160).
26.
McLeskeyJ., & WaldronN. L. (2006). Comprehensive school reform and inclusive schools. Theory Into Practice, 45(3), 269–278).
27.
No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB). (2001). Public Law 107–110, 115 Stat. 1425 (2002).
28.
PettersonJ. M., & HittieM. M. (2003). Inclusive teaching: Creating effective schools for all children. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
29.
ReaP., MclaughlinV., & Walther-ThomasC. (2002). Outcomes for students with learning disabilities in inclusive and pullout programs. Exceptional Children, 68(2), 203–223).
30.
RosenbergM., SindelarP., & HardmanM. (2004). Preparing highly qualified teachers for students with emotional and behavioral disorders: The impact of NCLB and IDEA. Behavioral Disorders, 29, 266–278).
31.
SalendS., & DuhaneyL. (1999). The impact of inclusion on students with and without disabilities and their educators. Remedial and Special Education, 20, 114–126).
32.
SharpeM. N., YorkJ. L., & KnightJ. (1994). Effects of inclusion on academic performance of classmates without disabilities. Remedial and Special Education, 15(5), 281–287).
33.
StaubD., & PeckC. A. (1995). What are the outcomes for nondisabled students?Educational Leadership, 52(4), 36–40).
34.
StraussA., & CorbinJ. (1998). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
35.
TASH. (2009, July). Inclusive education and implications for policy: The state of the art and the promise (Congressional Briefing on Inclusive Education). Washington, D.C.
36.
TheoharisG., & Causton-TheoharisJ. (2014). Leading inclusive reform for students with disabilities: A school and system-wide approach. Theory into Practice: Special issue on Inclusive Leadership and Social Justice, 53(2), 82–97).
37.
Udvari-SolnerA. (1997). Inclusive education. In GrantC.A., & Ladson-BillingsG. (Eds.), Dictionary of multicultural education (pp. 141–144)). Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press.
38.
U.S. Department of Education. (2011). Thirtieth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2008. Washington, DC.
VaughnS., & Linan-ThompsonS. (2003). What is special about special education for students with learning disabilities?The Journal of Special Education, 37(3), 140–147). doi:10.1177/00224669030370030301
41.
VaughnS., MoodyS. W., & SchummJ. S. (1998). Broken promises: Reading instruction in the resource room. Exceptional Children, 64(2), 211–225).
42.
VillaR. A., & ThousandJ. S. (2003). Making inclusive education work: Successful implementation requires commitment, creative thinking, and effective classroom strategies. Educational Leadership, 61(2), 42–56).
43.
WaitollerF. R., & ArtilesA. J. (2013). A decade of professional development research for inclusive education: A critical review and notes for a research program. Review of Educational Research. doi:10.3102/0034654313483905
44.
YinR. K. (2003). Case study research: Design and methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
