Abstract
Teachers in special education classrooms often struggle with classroom management. In response, many educators are looking for technological solutions to assist in promoting positive classroom environments. Electronic behavior management programs (eBMPs) use strategies based in research that are shown to reduce challenging behavior and encourage positive behavior, such as reinforcement strategies and the Premack principle. This article explains the theoretical efficacies of eBMPs, describes three commonly used eBMPs, and provides procedures on how educators can get started implementing eBMPs with additional tips to consider.
It is October and Mr. Raines is still struggling to manage the behavior in his classroom. As a novice teacher, he is unsure about his classroom expectations and procedures and feels like his students take advantage of him. He’s never taught a self-contained classroom of sixth graders with disabilities and therefore has been dedicating much of his spare time learning the math, reading, science, and social studies academic curriculums. Even though Mr. Raines is becoming more comfortable with the district curriculum materials, he spends much of his day dealing with students who are out of their seats, calling out, goofing off, and not engaged in what he is trying to teach them. Parents have also communicated to Mr. Raines that they would like to receive information about their children’s behavior during the school day. Mr. Raines does not know what to do and fears that it is going to be a long and difficult school year.
In the scenario above, Mr. Raines wants to maximize academic learning time, student engagement, and academic progress but struggles to effectively implement classroom management strategies and procedures. He knows that classroom management includes the steps a teacher takes to generate an environment that promotes academic and social–emotional learning (Evertson & Weinstein, 2006; Sugai & Horner, 2002). However, Mr. Raines, like many teachers, struggles with the classroom management skills necessary to support students with disabilities (Gilmour, Majeika, Sheaffer, & Wheby, 2018).
Teachers nationwide report that they are unprepared to manage behavior problems in their classrooms, that student misbehavior negatively impacts their instruction, and that students with serious behavior challenges often take up too much of their instructional time (Martin, Lloyd, Kauffman, & Coyne, 1995; National Center for Education Statistics, 2015). Teacher preparation programs rarely include training on classroom management (Freeman, Simonsen, Briere, & MacSuga-Gage, 2014), likely intensifying challenges teachers face in the classroom. The lack of teacher training in classroom management is particularly troublesome for teachers of students with disabilities as these students may be at greater risk of exhibiting problem behavior than peers without disabilities. Teachers who struggle with classroom and behavior management often supplement their perceived lack of skill by turning to outside resources such as smartphone applications, websites, social media, colleagues, and mentors (Anshari, Almunawar, Shahrill, Wicaksono, & Huda, 2017).
Eating lunch in the teachers’ lounge one day, Mr. Raines is talking about his difficulty in keeping students on task. A veteran teacher, Ms. Fisher, speaks up and asks if he has ever considered an electronic behavior management program (eBMP) to help with classroom management. Mr. Raines is not even sure what eBMPs are, so he thinks back to his preservice days and the one course he took on classroom management. He remembers the importance of rules and procedures and how he is supposed to “catch kids being good.” He knows positive reinforcement will increase desirable behaviors, but he feels like he is too busy putting out fires, particularly with a few students who require most of his attention. In fact, Mr. Raines has started to notice that students who were better behaved at the beginning of the school year are starting to cause disruptions and problems too. He asks Ms. Fisher to describe eBMPs and how he can use them in his classroom.
Ms. Fisher explains to Mr. Raines that eBMPs are technology-based programs using smartphone applications and/or websites to support teachers in managing their classrooms. During their conversation, Ms. Fisher describes how eBMPs are designed with evidence-based classroom management strategies in mind. For example, some evidence-based practices included in eBMPs’ theoretical basis are specific and/or contingent praise (Heward, 2003), performance feedback (Riden, 2017), group contingencies (Maggin, Pustejovsky, & Johnson, 2017), and token economies (Maggin, Chafouleas, Goddard, & Johnson, 2011). By considering evidence-based practices, eBMPs employ a continuum of strategies that recognize students’ desired, socially appropriate behaviors, and at the same time, work to reduce maladaptive, inappropriate behavior. Research in the area of applied behavior analysis (ABA) suggests that strategies such as praise, feedback, group contingencies, and token economies are effective for students with challenging behavior (Cooper, Heron, & Heward, 2007).
In general, classrooms with more structure have been shown to promote more appropriate academic and social behaviors such as greater task involvement, proper peer interactions, helpful behaviors, and less aggression (Myers, Freeman, Simonsen, & Sugai, 2017). Ms. Fisher informs Mr. Raines that the general principles of ABA can be used to solve or reduce problems in his classrooms. During their conversation, Ms. Fisher explains to Mr. Raines that positive reinforcement is the foundation for many positive behavior interventions. Positive reinforcement is simply defined as providing a reward to a student following a desired behavior that results in the desired behavior occurring again in the future (Johnston & Pennypacker, 2010). If a teacher wants to increase positive peer interactions, he or she uses positive reinforcement techniques when students engage in positive peer interactions. Mr. Raines can utilize eBMPs to help him use positive reinforcement and “catch his students being good.” For example, if Mr. Raines wants his students to stay focused on their assignment instead of goofing off, he can “catch” his students working appropriately using an eBMP and immediately provide a reward to them. By doing this Mr. Raines increases the likelihood, his students will work appropriately in the future.
Another strategy that Mr. Raines can use is the Premack principle (Premack, 1965), which is also known as Grandma’s Law. Grandma’s Law is easily understood as, if you do this then you get that. An example in a setting outside of school is if you eat your peas then you can have ice cream, hence Grandma’s Law. An example in the classroom is if a student completes his class assignment correctly without disrupting the class, then he can have 5 min of free time on the class computer. During the assignment, Mr. Raines can use an eBMP to document which students are engaged without disruptions, then provide the reward (e.g., bonus points, free time) following the assignment. Ms. Fisher tells Mr. Raines that the principles they have discussed and others are used as a foundation of eBMPs and that it may be worth a shot in his classroom.
Mr. Raines thinks an eBMP would help foster purposeful actions regarding his classroom management. He believes the ideas Ms. Fisher presented to him about behavior principles like positive reinforcement and the Premack principle that make up the foundation for eBMPs will help him gain control of his classroom. He asks Ms. Fisher to describe a few popular and effective eBMPs that he should consider. Table 1 describes three eBMPs used in classrooms across the United States. Each has similarities and differences apparent in the detailed descriptions below.
Electronic Behavior Management Programs.
ClassDojo
According to their website, ClassDojo helps (a) create a positive culture where teachers can encourage student to work hard, be kind, help others, or any other positive behavior; (b) give students a voice by showcasing and sharing their learning by adding photos and videos to their portfolio; and (c) share moments with parents by sharing photos and videos of positive classroom moments. Teachers can get started with ClassDojo by downloading the application to any device, creating a class, adding students, and inviting parents to view the students’ behavior in real time by printing invitations or sending them by e-mail. Their website (www.classdojo.com/resources/) has several resources available for teachers, school leaders, students, and parents. ClassDojo is a popular application as evidenced by implementation in 90% of K–8 schools in the United States (ClassDojo, n.d.).
The fundamental application of ClassDojo is that it provides each student a kid-friendly avatar, whereby the teacher can then allocate green points for desired behaviors and red points for undesirable behaviors. Teachers can easily choose behaviors from a list or create their own target behaviors. A superb feature of ClassDojo is that it compiles green and red points data into daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly percentages, making for easy behavior data analysis and sharing with key stakeholders such as parents.
MacLean-Blevins (2013) was the first to investigate eBMPs looking at ClassDojo and student self-regulation. Self-regulation is the ability to recognize emotions and behavior and take action to address them. The author suggested ClassDojo, as a customizable online behavior tracking system, could be an effective tool for supporting students in increasing positive self-regulatory behaviors. Additional research has been conducted on eBMPs in recent years showing ClassDojo to be an effective eBMP for increasing desired academic behaviors and minimizing disruptive behaviors (e.g., Dadakhodjaeva, 2017; Dillon, 2016). Studies examining ClassDojo used similar procedures where teachers created a ClassDojo account, entered their class rosters, had students choose and personalize an avatar, and identified classroom behaviors to be used as their classroom behavior plan. Teachers would then assign or deduct points using the eBMP based on the target behaviors identified by the class. Teachers may choose to use ClassDojo if they want to share classroom activities via classroom stories to parents, instantly message parents without using phone numbers, have a need for communication to be translated, create portfolios to share student learning, and provide instant feedback to students.
SCORE IT
SCORE IT is a research-based self-monitoring iPad application that is purported to change student behavior one click at a time (Figure 1). SCORE IT is designed to provide student self-monitoring for users of the READ 180, SYSTEM 44, and iRead programs but also can be implemented during instructional activities that include whole and small group instruction, independent reading, and instructional technology. According to the SCORE IT website (SCORE IT, n.d.) after an instructional activity, students rate their behavior on a scale of 0–4. Teachers also can rate students’ behavior using the same scale, which allows them to compare ratings and provide students with immediate feedback. Students and teachers can set behavioral goals, track progress, and visually analyze data with user-friendly dashboards.
Sample screen of SCORE IT .
SCORE IT is an application for iPads only, which restricts its adoption to districts that use Apple products. The interface and user experience are simplistic and intuitive. Because the application was designed for specific reading programs, customization of activities is limited. Despite some limitations, the ability for students to self-monitor behaviors and then teachers and students to compare scores is unique among eBMPs.
Developed by leading researchers in educational technology and behavior, SCORE IT has been investigated to determine its effectiveness (Bruhn, Vogelgesang, Fernado, & Lugo, 2016; Bruhn, Vogelgesang, Schabilion, Waller, & Fernando, 2015). In these studies, students met with their teachers after different activities during the school day and rated their behavior using the SCORE IT program on an iPad. Teachers also rated their students’ behavior. Teachers then compared their ratings with the students and provided specific praise, corrective feedback, and directions on future target behaviors. Study results suggest SCORE IT is an effective eBMP when used with academic and disruptive behaviors. The abovementioned studies looked at SCORE IT’s impact on students displaying challenging behaviors in middle school. The authors found that there were notable increases in desired behavior as well as decreases in disruptive behaviors. Teachers may choose to use SCORE IT if they want a self-monitoring application for students and teachers to support behavioral improvement as well as use a built-in progress-monitoring tool. To learn more about SCORE IT please visit http://www.scoreit.info.
LiveSchool
According to their brochure, LiveSchool is a teacher-friendly Internet application that can be used to track behavior, provide feedback to students and their parents, can be used with an incentive system, can be used as a school or district data system, and has been aligned with other leading behavior interventions such as positive behavior intervention and supports, multitiered system of support, and response to intervention (LiveSchool, n.d.) (Figure 2). LiveSchool is intended for use by entire schools or districts. To get started with LiveSchool, an administrator must send a spreadsheet with teachers’ names and e-mails as well as student names and grade levels to LiveSchool. Next, the administrator has a kickoff call with a LiveSchool coordinator that walks them through a 30-min training call. After the training session, the administrator leads a staff meeting to train the staff using LiveSchool’s videos and resources so the team can start experiencing faster, easier, and more effective behavior improvements.
Sample screen of LiveSchool.
Similar to ClassDojo, LiveSchool utilizes green and red points for desirable and undesirable behaviors. LiveSchool stands out from other eBMPs as a comprehensive behavior management tool for entire schools. Once adopted by a school, or district, student data are stored in the cloud making those data accessible for each teacher; meaning, multiple teachers can view student progress, assign green or red points, and make comments in real time. An additional feature is that LiveSchool converts points into a token economy, by creating “paychecks” using an internal banking system and allowing students to spend their checks on predetermined items (e.g., homework passes, school supplies, stickers, and candy) as designated by the school.
Although there is no research on LiveSchool as of yet, according to M. Rubenstein (the founder of LiveSchool), LiveSchool has been awarded an Institute of Education Sciences (IES) grant to investigate the efficacy of LiveSchool as an eBMP (personal communication, November 27, 2017). LiveSchool was included in this review, despite the absence of peer-reviewed data, to date, due to its current IES grant investigation and its potential as a schoolwide eBMP. Several testimonials from education professional pertaining to the effectiveness of LiveSchool are provided on the website. Teachers may choose to use LiveSchool if they want to track, reward, and improve student behavior, improve feedback to parents, have access to student data at any time, and have a built-in data tracking system.
The research investigating the use of eBMPs and their effectiveness for managing student behavior is growing. Completed research on eBMPs suggests they are a promising technology for assisting teachers working with students who display challenging behaviors. eBMPs are a relatively new technology that is being implemented in schools throughout the United States. Due to the scale of implementation in schools, further investigation is warranted. Mr. Raines does not use any of the curriculums that SCORE IT was created for, nor does he have access to an iPad, so he rules that eBMP out. He likes the feature of LiveSchool where multiple teachers can participate in the behavior management plan of a student, but he is teaching a self-contained classroom, so that feature is not necessary. He decides to give ClassDojo a try. Before he sets up his classroom with ClassDojo, he asks Ms. Fisher if there are any tips he should know to successfully implementing eBMPs. A sample screen of the ClassDojo app is shown in Figure 3, to learn more about ClassDojo visit: https://www.classdojo.com
Sample screen of ClassDojo.
Implementation Tips
Here are a few additional tips teachers should consider to successfully implement eBMPs in their classrooms. Prior to introducing an eBMP to one’s classroom, teachers should become familiar and comfortable navigating and using the program. Spend some time practicing using the eBMP as you would in your classroom to build fluency. Each program stores student behavior data, allowing teachers to analyze daily, weekly, and monthly trends. For programs that use green and red points (ClassDojo and LiveSchool), teachers can monitor whether students are receiving more green points over time and fewer red points. Teachers can make data-based decisions to alter reinforcers or implement additional interventions based on green and red point data trends. E-mail sharing, or easy printouts of aggregate data, is useful to send to parents to increase communication and transparency as well as progress monitoring individualized education program behavior goals. Choosing behaviors to target for change may seem easy, but there are key steps a teacher must take when identifying behavior. Behaviors that are targeted for change must be socially significant. That is, behaviors identified for change should serve as a key prerequisite behavior, disrupt the learning process of the student or their peers, provide access to other settings/environments, cause social exclusion, and prevent students from obtaining reinforcers or can open the door for future behaviors (Cooper et al., 2007). Behaviors should not be targeted for change just because it may be slightly bothersome or annoying for the teacher. Teachers should also keep in mind the frequency of the “problem,” the severity (i.e., is the behavior causing harm), if the behavior is age and developmentally appropriate, and if changing the behavior will help the student learn. Once teachers have identified the student behavior they would like to change, they must operationally define the behavior. Operational definitions must avoid ambiguous definitions; instead, definitions should be specific, so they lead to enhanced clarity (Mires & Lee, 2017). Creating operational definitions ensures teachers are reliably monitoring the behaviors they have identified and ensures that any person can identify the specific behavior targeted for reduction and change. In order to produce an operational definition, it is beneficial for a teacher to describe the behavior in an observable manner, describe the behavior in measurable terms, define the behavior in positive terms, and be clear, concise, and complete (Bicard, Bicard, & the IRIS Center, 2012). After the teacher has set up his or her classroom in the eBMP (e.g., assigned student avatars, selected target behaviors) and is comfortable using the program, the eBMP should be introduced to students in an explicit and systematic manner (Archer & Hughes, 2011). Do not rush implementation. Explain to students how the eBMP works, identify target behaviors, provide operational definitions, demonstrate and role-play examples and nonexamples, and provide positive/corrective feedback as needed. At this point, the teacher may choose to have a discussion with students about the type and amount of reinforcer that can be earned following predetermined goals, for example, if all students have met their goals by the end of the day, the class can have access to a preferred item or activity. The teacher, however, must be prepared to manage this negotiation. If the teacher knows his or her students well, it may be easier to begin with predetermined goals and reinforcers. Students who engage in challenging and disruptive classroom behaviors do so for a reason, which is referred to as the function of the behavior (Cooper et al., 2007). It is important to identify the function of behavior to effectively implement eBMPs targeting classroom behavior. There are four main functions of behavior: attention, escape, tangible, and sensory/automatic. When behaviors are being maintained by attention, the attention can function as a positive reinforcer that is likely to increase whatever behavior is being displayed. Behaviors that are maintained by escape allow the student to remove something that is aversive to them. The third function is tangible and behaviors maintained by a tangible function allow the student to get a desired item by engaging in certain behaviors. Finally, the function of a behavior can also be sensory or automatic meaning that the behavior is self-stimulating. Teachers can conduct a functional analysis to identify the function of behavior or administer assessments such as the functional assessment screening tool to estimate the function of behavior. Please visit www.ci3t.org/fabi, to learn more about functional assessments (Comprehensive Integrated, Three-tiered Model of Prevention, n.d.). Different things reinforce different students. Not all students desire praise in front of peers, just like not all student behaviors are reinforced with peanut M&Ms (especially students with peanut allergies!). It is important to identify potential reinforcers. One way teachers can identify preferred items are to administer preference assessments (Chazin & Ledford, 2016). Identifying preferred items can be done in three ways. First, ask the student what he or she likes by having them rank order items, choose items from a list, or simply have an open-ended discussion with them. Second, observe the student in both natural and contrived environments to identify preferred items. Third, teachers can use trial-based assessments (e.g., multiple stimulus with and without replacement). Please visit http://vkc.mc.vanderbilt.edu/ebip/preference-assessments/, for more information on preference assessments. When teachers are using eBMPs to reduce challenging student behavior, it is critical to teach a replacement behavior that serves the same function as the behavior being modified (Lewis & Sugai, 2017). If a teacher is using eBMPs to reduce student talk outs, it is not enough to only work on reducing talk outs. A replacement behavior for talking out might be to teach the student to raise her hand when she has a question, needs something, or has something she wants to add to the conversation. It is important to remember that when the student engages in the replacement behavior, the teachers should immediately reinforce the desired (i.e., replacement) behavior. Among many things, eBMPs are useful because they help teachers establish positive reinforcement contingencies, electronically organize behavior management strategies, and display data for students to self-monitor progress. Ideally, teachers want students to move from relying on eBMPs, which assist with artificial and immediate contingencies of reinforcement, such as positive tokens, to more natural contingencies of reinforcement, for example, engaging in the lesson, which leads to learning the content and better grades. Fading intervention support over time is a way to assist students with contacting natural reinforcement contingencies and there are several ways to fade support (MacDuff, Krantz, & McClannahan, 2001). Please visit http://projectautism.org/blog/fading-the-intervention, for more information about fading supports. Often times, students with challenging behaviors have experienced negative relationships with their teachers and administration (Frymier & Houser, 2000). Many of those negative relationships result from excessive use of punishment strategies. It is important to use reinforcement interventions for students with challenging behavior and not jump straight to punishment procedures. We can use positive strategies by using backup reinforcers. Backup reinforcers are items or activities students enjoy and can work to earn those backup reinforcers. If a student meets his or her behavioral goals that day, a student is granted access to the backup reinforcer. However, if a student does not meet their goal, the backup reinforcer is simply withheld. No punishment procedure is implemented. There are features in ClassDojo that can be used as punishment procedures. Teachers should focus on using eBMPs as a positive strategy and refrain from using them as a punishment procedure. When implementing an eBMP with accumulations of green and red points (e.g., ClassDojo and LiveSchool), students must always be afforded the opportunity to earn their way to green. For example, a student’s is to end the day at or above their goal to earn access to preferred items or activities but has a difficult morning and by lunchtime has a cumulation of six red points. If that student feels like all hope is lost to meet his or her goal by the end of the day, he or she may continue to display undesirable behaviors because the reinforcer to display desirable behaviors is unattainable. In this situation, the teacher should have a conversation with the student explaining that there is plenty of time to demonstrate appropriate behaviors to meet their goal. The teacher also must pay attention to the student, catch the student doing the right thing, and deliver a few green points on an expedited schedule. This will demonstrate to the student that ending the day at their goal is possible, the student will receive positive reinforcement for their behavior and should provide some behavioral momentum to continue behaving appropriately. Students should not owe points or go below zero (Cooper et al., 2007). Try to avoid public display of each student’s progress. If using an eBMP on a smartboard with each student’s behavioral progress displayed (e.g., ClassDojo), be aware of social dynamics and students’ reactions to public monitoring. A student might be embarrassed that she earns red points when her friends are earning green points. Other students might tease a student who earns red points. Public monitoring of student behaviors can be an effective feature, especially when implementing a group contingency (e.g., pizza party if the entire class ends the day in green). Behavioral progress must be implemented with sensitivity to all students. Target a limited number of problem behaviors, with the most pertinent behaviors first. Focus on the behavior(s) that will make the biggest impact in promoting a positive classroom environment. Use the eBMP to frequently and consistently reinforce those behaviors. The most severe behaviors should be targeted for reduction first. Bringing materials to class is an important behavior, but if students are regularly fighting in class, priority should be given to reducing fighting behavior and reinforcing appropriate behaviors such as working together, solving conflicts with words, and ignoring distractions. Identifying too many behaviors on the onset is difficult for students to remember what they are supposed to be doing and can lead to poor fidelity of implementation by the teacher. Continuous data monitoring is necessary to ensure eBMPs being implemented are beneficial to students. Teacher should collect data on the behavior they would like to change before intervening to get a baseline of student behavior. By doing this, teachers get a better picture of what is occurring in the classroom. Teachers should continue to collect data daily on student progress after an eBMP has been implemented to ensure the intervention is having the desired impact. It is important to note that students react to interventions differently. If a student is obstinate, a teacher should sit down with the student and have a positive conversation with him or her. During this conversation, the teacher can highlight successful instances when eBMPs have been used in class, socially reinforce the students interest when the eBMP is being implemented, share data with the student showing his or her progress, revisit preferred items as the reinforcer may not be strong enough for the eBMP to work as intended, and if necessary, take a step back and consider if a more individualized intervention is needed for that particular student.
Conclusion
Mr. Raines enters his students into ClassDojo, gives each student an avatar, and finds the process quick and easy. Mr. Raines decides that he wants his class to be more respectful to each other by using kind words and to raise their hands before speaking. He chose these behaviors because he was concerned with some of the language students were using toward each other (e.g., calling each other stupid, dumb, or idiots) and shouting out answer without being called on. Mr. Raines has an idea that the behaviors are occurring frequently but he wants to make sure this is the case. He collects baseline data using a frequency count (counting the number of times the behaviors occur during class). He uses ClassDojo on his phone, unbeknownst to his students, to give red points to each student who displays undesirable behaviors. Mr. Raines analyzes the aggregate data and confirms his suspicion that the behaviors are occurring at high rates. In fact, students are using unkind words upwards of 40 instances (with a few students accounting for most of the instances) and shouting out answers in excess of 30 times in a 45-min class. With these two behaviors under control, he thinks his classroom will be a calmer environment and more conducive to learning. The next day, Mr. Raines displays ClassDojo on the smartboard in front of the class. The students love seeing their monster avatars. Mr. Raines explains that the two behaviors he is looking for are hand raising and using respectful language. He provides operational definitions of these behaviors and provides several examples and nonexamples. He explains that when a student is caught doing the right thing, he or she will get a green point, but if a student is caught not raising his or her hand before speaking, or uses disrespectful language, a red point will be assigned. He explains that a punishment is not assigned to red points, rather they are assigned help the class see changes in behavior. Mr. Raines knows his students love extra computer time but also knows that waiting until the end of the day is too long in duration to provide a reward. So, he breaks the day in half and tells his class that any student who earns 10 points before lunch gets access to a previously identified preferred activity or item (e.g., computer time) and any student who earns 10 points by the end of the day can earn the same. He also tells the class that there are two sessions per day; that every morning is one, and after lunch is a fresh start and everyone goes back to zero. He believes this will allow students who have a bad morning the opportunity to have a great afternoon. Mr. Raines’ students have bought in and are excited to earn access to preferred items and activities. Mr. Raines monitors the progress of his classroom and sees by the reduction in red points over time that students have reduced the use of unkind word to less than five instances in 45 min and they have reduced the number of shout outs to under 10 in 45 min. The data show Mr. Raines that implementing the eBMP is successful in reducing problem behavior and feels more confident with his classroom management and is hopeful about the remaining school year.
Effective classroom management is critical in promoting positive academic and social/emotional student outcomes (Korpershoek, Harms, de Boer, van Kuijk, & Doolaard, 2016). Teachers who struggle to consistently implement positive reinforcement contingencies may benefit from eBMPs. Effects of eBMPs, however, will only be as strong as fidelity of implementation. Teachers must remember that to curb undesirable behaviors, high rates of reinforcement for desirable behaviors are needed, and replacement behaviors must be taught and reinforced as well (Lewis & Sugai, 2017). Simply setting up an eBMP will not change student behaviors—teachers must consistently use them. The scenarios presented in this article are based on the authors’ experiences in self-contained classrooms; however, the strategies presented are applicable to inclusive and general education classrooms alike. Grounded in effective ABA principles with user-friendly designs, intuitive features, and constant technological updates, eBMPs are comprehensive and effective tools that can assist any teacher in promoting a positive classroom environment.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services.
