Removing Systemic Barriers for Learners with Diverse Identities: Antiracism,Universal Design for Learning,and Edpuzzle

Abstract

Learners confront many different types of barriers in their learning environment depending on their diverse identities. This paper considers the barriers experienced by Black and Brown learners and learners with disabilities. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework created to remove barriers during the planning stage of curriculum design. By applying antiracism as a complement to UDL, we outline how to use Edpuzzle, a video lesson technology, to create accessible lessons for either Black and Brown learners, learners with disabilities, or both.

Keywords

antiracist universal design for learning video lessons instructional technology

Introduction

Barriers for Diverse Learners

Diversity can exist within a person’s body, psychology, emotions, socio-cultural and racial backgrounds, society, policies, and so on. We hold that systemic barriers to learning are created when environments do not intentionally create opportunities for people with diverse identities to access and participate in the learning. Worse yet, historically, systems have been shown to intentionally create barriers to learning for people with diverse identities. For example, learning environments have created barriers for people when they have needed additional support due to their physical, cognitive, or psychological diversity through: a lack of access to the same curriculum as their peers; segregated environments; absence of adequate accommodations (e.g., assistive technology, service personnel); and procedural safeguards (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2004). There is also a long history of learning environments creating barriers for Black and Brown people resulting from stereotype threat (Steele & Aronson, 1995; Steele, 1997), legally preventing equal access to learning ((Supreme Court Of The United States, 1896) Plessy v. Ferguson, 1896), and dehumanizing Black people to chattel, precluding any contemplation of ability or right to learn (Roper, 2007; Library of Congress, n.d.). In this way, society (not science) has simultaneously constructed identities (i.e., ability and race) and created unsafe environments that at best neglect and at worst weaponize these identities, preventing access to and participation in learning. “Inclusive” and “equitable” educational systems that invite Black and Brown people and people with disabilities to access and participate in learning environments, without removing racist and ableist barriers in the environments, are neither truly inclusive nor equitable (Martin et al., 2019).

Framework

The goal of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is to provide equal access to learning opportunities by removing barriers through the utilization of flexible methods. Scholars and practitioners in the field have recognized UDL’s unfulfilled potential in explicitly addressing the plethora of diverse identities (e.g., gender, sexuality, socioeconomic status, race, ability) and are seeking to address it through such initiatives as UDL Rising to Equity (CAST, 2020b) and Designing an Inclusive Future (Kaczorowski et al., 2022).

Antiracist frameworks in education increase UDL’s potential by explicitly recognizing Black and Brown learners in UDL’s “all learners” rhetoric. Promoted as an exemplar in the field, Antiracism and UDL (A + UDL) is Fritzgerald’s (2020) approach to recognizing and removing unique barriers for Black and Brown learners and to constructing a safe, welcoming, and flexible environment that empowers Black and Brown learners (CAST, 2020a).

According to McMahon and Walker, “the use of technology is vital to the implementation of UDL” (p. 40). Technology, including video lesson technology (e.g., Edpuzzle, PlayPosit, Formative, Nearpod), increases the potential of A + UDL by providing opportunities to make learning more accessible for Black and Brown people and people with disabilities (Cesare et al., 2021; McMahon & Walker, 2014). The primary purpose of video lesson technology is to transform one-sided lectures into interactive tutorials by embedding questions into video lessons. Students must answer each question during the video before continuing the lesson. We chose to focus on Edpuzzle because it is easy to use, does not require a subscription, and integrates with several learning management systems (LMSs). The features and integration possibilities of the Edpuzzle platform easily incorporate the tenets of UDL without having to juggle multiple tools to address multiple types of barriers. As such, Edpuzzle facilitates the purposeful removal of multiple types of barriers in the environment to intentionally create opportunities for people with a variety of diverse identities to be able to access and participate in the learning.

In an earlier Tech-in-Action article, Cesare et al (2021) explained the basic features of Edpuzzle, including uploading videos, grading, and LMS integration. They also describe how to create effective video lessons. In Table 1, we provide a list of additional resources for getting started with Edpuzzle. This article seeks to expand on Cesare et al (2021) initial commentary by describing how Edpuzzle can remove barriers for either Black and Brown learners, learners with disabilities, or both.

Table 1.

Edpuzzle Resources.

Resource	Description	Website
Edpuzzle professional development videos	Edpuzzle offers several free online courses for educators about how to use Edpuzzle. Each course consists of short videos using the Edpuzzle platform. Topics include Edpuzzle basics, LMS integration, lesson planning, and digital citizenship	https://tinyurl.com/ycka5rtn
Edpuzzle help center	In addition to video lessons, Edpuzzle provides text-based instructions on how to use Edpuzzle	https://tinyurl.com/2ds528ht
A piece of the (Ed)Puzzle companion site	This website of resources was created by Cesare and colleagues as a companion site to their article about Edpuzzle (Cesare et al., 2021). They include instructional videos on how to create effective video lessons and links to other online resources	https://tinyurl.com/DDC-TK-AH

Applying Antiracism as a Complement to UDL

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework that advocates for a curriculum that is accessible for all learners. Such a curriculum would remove barriers to learning by accounting for physical and sociocultural human variability. UDL was developed by CAST, formerly known as the Center for Applied Special Technology. Their original goal was to address how to make learning environments more accessible for students with disabilities (CAST, n.d.; Lambert, 2021, p. 661; McMahon & Walker, 2014, p. 40). UDL arose out of the need to create an environment that is accessible to all learners and their diverse abilities. Three principles comprise the foundation of UDL: multiple means of Representation (how learners consume information), multiple means of Action and Expression (how learners communicate information), and multiple means of Engagement (how learners are motivated). Each principle contains three more specific guidelines categorized by access (addressing barriers in the curriculum), build (addressing course requirements), and internalize (addressing desired skills). For example, Guideline 1 is “provide options for perception,” located in the Representation column and the access row. Each guideline is specified even further by several checkpoints. Checkpoint 1.2, “offer alternatives for auditory information,” is one of the checkpoints for Guideline 1. The UDL Guidelines offer detailed descriptions of the ways educators can design their curriculum “to ensure that all learners can access and participate in meaningful, challenging learning opportunities” (CAST, 2018f). In practice, however, it may be unclear who actually benefits from UDL.

In a study of UDL experts, Hollingshead et al (2022) found that most participants did not mention “all” learners or inclusivity at all in their descriptions of UDL. Those who did mention “all” learners did not elaborate on who “all” contains. The researchers noticed in a previous study that teachers of students with significant intellectual disabilities were not implementing UDL as frequently as teachers of students with moderate intellectual disabilities. That observation, along with the results of the study of UDL experts, led the researchers to conclude that “even the experts in UDL may mean ‘exclusive inclusion’ rather than inclusion of all” (Hollingshead et al., 2022, p. 1154). It seems the researchers meant “exclusive inclusion” within the context of ability. We argue that the omission of race in the experts’ descriptions of UDL and the researchers’ discussion is another form of “exclusive inclusion” in the UDL framework.

Though there have been initiatives to broaden the scope of diversity, equity, and inclusion in the UDL framework (CAST, 2020b; Kaczorowski et al., 2022), race is usually part of a diverse list of characteristics including ability, socioeconomic status, gender, and sexuality. Fritzgerald (2020) began the work of explicitly examining Antiracism alongside UDL, though we see the need for more literature on practical ways to truly integrate the two frameworks.

Fritzgerald (2020) sees Antiracism and UDL (A + UDL) converging as an expressway to success for Black and Brown learners by honoring their identities and empowering them by providing an environment that is barrier-free and safe. A + UDL is constructed of six “Safety Checks,” additional factors to be considered during the instructional design process for Black and Brown learners. These Safety Checks seek to support teachers with intentionally creating a barrier-free, safe environment for Black and Brown students.

Fritzgerald’s conception of Antiracist Safety Checks can be seen as a complementary principle to the existing three principles of UDL (see Table 2). For simplicity’s sake, we have only included the Safety Checks and UDL Checkpoints that we describe in our next section. It is easy to see how other identities (e.g., gender, sexuality, socioeconomic status) could be supported explicitly in the UDL Guidelines by adding a column representing the chosen identity, or “principle.” Our work will focus on race and ability.

Table 2.

Antiracist Safety Checks as a Principle of UDL.

	Antiracist Safety Checks	Engagement	Representation	Action and Expression
Access	Antiracism: Black and Brown voices in curricula (SC1)	Minimize threats and distractions (7.3)	Offer alternatives for auditory information (1.2)
Build		Increase mastery-oriented feedback (8.4)	Promote understanding across languages (2.4)	Use multiple media for communication (5.1)
Internalize	Behavioral expectations: safely ask questions and make mistakes (SC4)			Support planning and strategy development (6.2)

Applying Edpuzzle to Support A + UDL

In the following section, we describe how Edpuzzle can address a selection of criteria from Fritzgerald’s (2020) Antiracist Safety Checks and the UDL checkpoints (CAST, 2018f) (see Table 2). Each checkpoint of the UDL Guidelines was developed using an extensive list of empirical studies and scholarly reviews (see CAST.org).

Edpuzzle alone is not enough to satisfy every A + UDL consideration. Video lesson technology must be combined with other technology, offline instructional practices, classroom norms, and school policies to adequately remove barriers to learning for Black and Brown students and students with disabilities. We aim to provide a starting point to utilize Edpuzzle in support of A + UDL.

Antiracist Safety Checks

Safety Check 1: Antiracism

Antiracism requires teachers to “actively recognize racist barriers and do the work to tear them down,” (Fritzgerald, 2020, p. 33). Fritzgerald draws from the action steps created by the African American Student Union at Harvard Graduate School of Design to provide a list of nine questions educators should consider in constructing an antiracist learning environment (see Appendix). In our Edpuzzle application, we have selected to explore Question 1: “Are Black and Brown voices reflected in the curricula and/or curricular resources?”

Choosing existing videos for Edpuzzle lessons is an efficient way to introduce content and focus your energy on creating class time activities. It also provides the opportunity to highlight Black and Brown experts in the subject material. Finding Black and Brown experts may take some time, however. For example, most mathematics YouTube channels are created by people who fit the stereotype of a mathematician: White or Asian and male. While choosing videos from these creators is not wrong, it is important to include content from Black and Brown mathematicians.

The Black-Matician is a Black female YouTuber who uploads mathematics tutorials mostly related to algebra (The Black-Matician, 2018). She has a variety of videos, including “storytime” videos where she tells a relatable story that directly applies to a concept in mathematics. She is still adding videos and plans to include content from sixth-grade mathematics through calculus. Her videos would be an accessible entry point for those beginning to learn algebra or an engaging review for more advanced learners.

Safety Check 4: Behavioral Expectations

Teachers must consider that Black and Brown students come to the classroom with diverse sociocultural and behavioral norms. Diverse sociocultural and behavioral norms can be perceived as deviant, abnormal, or bad when viewed only through the lens of the culture in power in the environment (Apple, 2004). As such, it is important that teachers “allow the community of learners to shape the expectations” and behavioral norms for the class (Fritzgerald, 2020, p. 39). Creating a barrier-free, safe environment includes establishing a shared understanding of expectations and behavioral norms, including defining “acceptable behaviors and speech” and ensuring the classroom is a “place where students are free to take risks, ask questions, and be honored for being themselves,” (p. 40).

One way to encourage Black and Brown students to take risks is to include formative assessment in video lessons. Students should not be graded on the accuracy of their answers at this stage; formative assessment is merely a diagnostic tool. Edpuzzle allows educators to collect data from students through multiple choice and short answer responses. The dashboard on the Edpuzzle website can organize responses by question or by student to highlight which questions were more difficult for students as a class and as individuals.

In addition to formative assessment, we recommend including a short answer prompt at the end of each video asking students to include any questions they have about the video. Students will not be able to see other students’ questions, though you may wish to start class time with anonymized questions from the video.

By using the question types on Edpuzzle and providing space to collect questions anonymously, students are further encouraged to participate and take risks in their learning. Black and Brown learners may have experienced or internalized stereotypes related to achievement. Formative assessment allows Black and Brown students to learn and grow over time without risking their grades. Additionally, Black and Brown students may experience less stereotype threat when their questions are not associated with their names. Black and Brown students may be more likely to ask questions when they are not at risk of being stereotyped in the classroom.

Representation

Checkpoint 1.2: Offer Alternatives for Auditory Information

Audible communication is one of the most common ways to transfer information. However, auditory information is not accessible to all learners. Those who are deaf cannot access auditory information at all, but people with different abilities related to processing information or memory may struggle with auditory information, as well (CAST, 2018c). It is important to provide methods of communication that do not rely on auditory information.

Videos you create must have closed captions to accommodate those who cannot access auditory information. Closed captions require a transcription text file separate from the video file. Edpuzzle does not automatically create closed captions, though it can display them if a transcript file is attached to the video. You must either choose videos that already have closed captions or create your own closed captions. We recommend two methods for creating closed captions. Both methods involve using YouTube to incorporate the transcript files. See Figure 1 for a step-by-step guide on how to create a video for Edpuzzle.

Figure 1.

Creating video assignments for Edpuzzle.

Method 1: Using a Script

In line with Cesare and colleagues’ (2021) suggestion, one method of creating closed captions is to write a script for your video before filming. Using a script can help reduce the duration of a video by editing the content to the essentials of one topic. In addition, the text file you create can serve as the beginning of the transcript file. You will be able to upload a text file of your transcript to YouTube. YouTube will automatically synchronize your script with the video. You can also edit the words or timing on YouTube if you spot any mistakes. (See Google, (n.d.a) for more specific instructions.)

Method 2: Automatic Captioning

If you prefer not to use a script, YouTube can automatically transcribe the audio from videos you upload. This method typically takes more time than the first method; it can take several hours for YouTube to create a transcript. In addition, you will need to check the captions to ensure they are correct. However, you will spend less time planning if you do not use a script. (For more details, see Google, (n.d.b.))

Checkpoint 2.4: Promote Understanding Across Languages

Lessons in the United States are typically conducted only in English, though there are many multilingual students who learn English as an additional language. Accessing information in English becomes more challenging for learners who are building fluency (CAST, 2018d). Thus, providing instruction in multiple languages is important to support multilingual learners. You do not need to be multilingual to provide support for multilingual students.

Adding subtitles in other languages is similar to adding closed captions. Once YouTube has added timings to your closed captions transcript, download the transcript file. You can open the file in a word processor, such as Microsoft Word or Google Docs, and use the translate feature within the word processor. This will create a new document in the language you specify. Using the video editor on YouTube, add another subtitle file to your video using the newly created translated file. It will already have the timings from the original transcript, so the results should be immediate. Viewers can now choose which language they wish to appear on the screen during the video.

Action and Expression

Checkpoint 5.1: Use Multiple Media for Communication

Using multiple forms of media is an important consideration when designing activities and assessments. Not only does multiple media increase students’ skills in different forms of expression, but it can also reduce media-specific barriers for students with disabilities (CAST, 2018g; Fritzgerald, 2020, p. 94).

As we have stated, video lessons need to be paired with other instructional practices; they are not the only form of instruction that should be used. However, video lessons provide the opportunity to introduce content in a new way. Posting your videos to both Edpuzzle and YouTube can have extra benefits.

Currently, the free version of Edpuzzle only allows you to keep 20 unique videos active. After 20 videos, you must delete older lessons from your Edpuzzle account to accommodate new lessons. This will also remove the videos from the students’ view. Our suggestion to keep video lessons accessible for students is to create a YouTube playlist for each of your classes. You can upload original videos or add third-party videos to a playlist. Though questions will no longer be embedded in the video, students will be able to review the videos when they are no longer on Edpuzzle. Students can leave comments and interact with each other on each video posted to YouTube. Additionally, the next time you teach the class, you will be able to add videos to Edpuzzle directly from your YouTube playlist. We recommend keeping track of your video questions in a separate document, like a Google Doc or Microsoft Word document, for easy reference when adding videos back to Edpuzzle.

Checkpoint 6.2: Support Planning and Strategy Development

All students, particularly students with disabilities related to executive function, can struggle with formulating a plan for problem-solving (CAST, 2018e; Fritzgerald, 2020, pp. 40–42). Providing scaffolds for large projects and integrating reflection questions during lessons can help learners develop the skills they need for implementing their own problem-solving strategies in the future.

Short video lessons allow students to learn on-demand and break up large lessons into smaller pieces. While you may require students to complete video lessons before class, students can choose when they watch the video, how many times they watch the video, when to pause and reflect, and when to rewind the video. You can also add short answer reflection questions during the video to prompt students to think about which steps to try next. In addition, students can revisit lessons after class for review. Students can discover which strategies work best for their needs and choose how to consume content.

Engagement

Checkpoint 7.3: Minimize Threats and Distractions

In addition to physical threats and distractions, students may be distracted from learning when other subtler threats are present (CAST, 2018b; Fritzgerald, 2020, p. 40). Black and Brown students and students with disabilities, in particular, may experience threats related to their identities. Students must feel safe before they can learn. A safe learning environment includes varying levels of socialization, sensory stimulation, and representation from Black and Brown experts and experts with disabilities.

Students may be distracted by other websites while a video lesson is playing. On Edpuzzle, the video will automatically pause if students navigate to a different tab or window. This ensures that the only way for students to get completion credit for the video is to have the video open for the entire duration, reducing the temptation to get distracted.

Checkpoint 8.4: Increase Mastery-Oriented Feedback

Feedback is essential for students to reflect on their work and determine how to improve. Mastery-oriented feedback, including formative feedback, focuses on students’ efforts rather than fixed measurements of intelligence or ability. Formative feedback is particularly helpful for Black and Brown students and students with disabilities who may be stereotyped as less capable than other students (CAST, 2018a; Fritzgerald, 2020, pp. 37, 125).

On multiple choice questions, teachers can include specific feedback for each option. Students will be able to see the feedback for each response regardless of which option they choose. You can include feedback for only the correct answer to describe why it is correct, or you can include feedback for each incorrect answer if they are derived from common mistakes. This feedback is available immediately after students submit their responses to allow them to improve on subsequent problems and highlight which areas students should focus on during class.

You may also provide feedback for short answer questions. Though immediate feedback is possible, it will not be tailored for each student. Instead, you can respond to each student’s short answer responses after they have completed the video lesson. This allows you to praise students for topics they have mastered and point out which areas need more attention.

Conclusion

Designing accessible lessons that remove barriers for all learners takes time and practice. It is important to explicitly consider specific marginalized identities — such as Black and Brown learners or learners with disabilities — when planning inclusive lessons. Utilizing Edpuzzle with A + UDL as we outlined in this paper offers a practical starting point for designing a curriculum with Black and Brown students and students with disabilities in mind. Future research and application should focus on creating environments that are actively antiracist and actively anti-ableist by removing barriers unique for Black and Brown learners and learners with disabilities.

Theoretical Implications

Throughout this exploratory process of bringing together A + UDL and Edpuzzle, we realized a few limitations in A + UDL’s current conceptualization. First, Fritzgerald (2020) tends to draw on scholarship from critical multicultural education more so than contemporary antiracist education. For example, Fritzgerald sees Antiracism as a converging expressway with UDL. A central tenant of Critical Race Theory, upon which Antiracism is based, is Interest Convergence (IC). IC is the notion that changes in policies and structures that would benefit Black and Brown people actually change only when those changes would also benefit those in power (white people). A truly Antiracist approach would not seek to identify IC so as to align with it, rather it would seek to identify IC and those whose interests are really being served by the proposed actions.

Second, Fritzgerald (2020) seems to view antiracism as a framework that complements UDL (A + UDL) instead of an inherent consideration that expands the accessibility goal of UDL. As a consequence, there is a lack of integration of antiracist considerations into every principle, guideline, and checkpoint of UDL. Therefore, in utilizing A + UDL as conceptualized, applications are limited in explicitly addressing both race and ability in every example.

We see the need for an Antiracist Universal Design for Learning (AUDL) where race is understood as central to Black and Brown learners’ experiences, even amongst other diverse identities such as ability, gender, class, etc. AUDL draws its understanding of antiracism from antiracist scholars and critical race theorists. This approach would necessitate a more integrated way of thinking about race by infusing antiracist considerations into every aspect of UDL. As a result, AUDL would be concerned with examining the learning environment in order to remove barriers to learning by revealing and challenging normalized racism and existing structures of power by explicitly centering the experiences of learners with Black and Brown identities.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Nicole Griggs

Roxanne Moore

Appendix

Author Biographies

Nicole Griggs (she/her) is a white cisgender woman, a doctoral student at Washington State University, and a mathematics instructor at Walla Walla Community College. She has experienced harmful barriers to learning as both a student and an instructor. Her goals are to eliminate barriers in college mathematics courses by listening to and adapting for students' needs.

Roxanne Moore (she/her) is a Black, First-Gen, cisgender, neurodiverse mother, scholar, activist, and former K-12, Title I school teacher and leader. She is a Mathematics Education doctoral candidate at Washington State University and the founder of reHumanizEd. As a researcher and consultant, Roxanne supports organizations in dismantling systemic barriers to access for people with diverse identities, in order to create liberatory environments that facilitate increased participation, performance, and human flourishing.

References

Apple

M. W.

(2004). Ideology and Curriculum (3rd ed.). Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203487563

The Black-Matician (2018). The Black-Matician [YouTube channel]. YouTube https://www.youtube.com/c/TheBlackMatician/featured

CAST (2018a). UDL: Increase mastery-oriented feedback. Wakefield, MA: CAST. https://udlguidelines.cast.org/engagement/effort-persistence/mastery-oriented-feedback

CAST (2018b). UDL: Minimize threats and distractions. Wakefield, MA: CAST. https://udlguidelines.cast.org/engagement/recruiting-interest/threats-distractions

CAST (2018c). UDL: Offer alternatives for auditory information. Wakefield, MA: CAST. https://udlguidelines.cast.org/representation/perception/alternatives-auditory

CAST (2018d). UDL: Promote understanding across languages. Wakefield, MA: CAST. https://udlguidelines.cast.org/representation/language-symbols/understanding-across-languages

CAST (2018e). UDL: Support planning and strategy development. Wakefield, MA: CAST. https://udlguidelines.cast.org/action-expression/executive-functions/strategy-development/strategy-development

CAST (2018f). UDL: The UDL Guidelines. Wakefield, MA: CAST. https://udlguidelines.cast.org/

CAST (2018g). UDL: Use multiple media for communication. Wakefield, MA: CAST. https://udlguidelines.cast.org/action-expression/expression-communication/use-multimedia

10.

CAST (2020a). Antiracism & UDL Converge for Student Success. Wakefield, MA: CAST Professional Publishing. https://publishing.cast.org/stories-resources/stories/antiracism-universal-design-learning-udl-converge-student-success-fritzgerald

11.

CAST (2020b). CAST Announces a Community-Driven Process to Update UDL Guidelines. Wakefield, MA: CAST. https://www.cast.org/news/2020/community-driven-process-update-udl-guidelines

12.

CAST (n.d.). Timeline of Innovation. Wakefield, MA: CAST. Retrieved August 5, 2022, from https://www.cast.org/impact/timeline-innovation

13.

Cesare

D. M. D.

Kaczorowski

Hashey

(2021). A piece of the (Ed)puzzle: Using the Edpuzzle interactive video platform to facilitate explicit instruction. Journal of Special Education Technology, 36(2), 77–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643421994266

14.

Fritzgerald

(2020). Antiracism and Universal Design for Learning: Building expressways to success. Wakefield, MA: CAST Professional Publishing.

15.

Google (n.d.a). Add subtitles and captions. YouTube Help. Retrieved March 9, 2022, from https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/2734796?hl=en#zippy=%2Cupload-a-file

16.

Google (n.d.b). Use automatic captioning. YouTube Help. Retrieved March 9, 2022, from. https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/6373554?hl=en&ref_topic=7296214#zippy=%2Cautomatic-captions-on-long-form-videos-and-shorts

17.

Hollingshead

Lowrey

K. A.

Howery

(2022). Universal design for learning: when policy changes before evidence. Educational Policy, 36(5), 1135–1161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904820951120

18.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (2004). Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 20 U.S.C. § 1415. Retrieved August 5, 2022, from https://sites.ed.gov/idea/

19.

Kaczorowski

McMahon

Gardiner-Walsh

Hollingshead

(2022). Designing an inclusive future: Including diversity and equity with innovations in special education technology. Teaching Exceptional Children. Online ahead print. https://doi.org/10.1177/00400599221090506

20.

Lambert

(2021). The magic is in the margins: UDL Math. Mathematics Teacher: Learning and Teaching PK, 12114(9), 660–669. https://doi.org/10.5951/MTLT.2020.0282

21.

Library of Congress (n.d). The Civil Rights Act of 1964: A Long Struggle for Freedom. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/civil-rights-act/legal-events-timeline.html

22.

Martin

D. B.

Groves Price

Moore

(2019). Refusing systemic violence against black children. In Davis

Jett

C. C.

(eds), Critical Race Theory in Mathematics Education (1st ed., pp. 32–55). Abingdon-on-Thames, Oxfordshire, UK: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315121192-4

23.

McMahon

Walker

(2014). Universal design for learning features and tools on ipads and other ios devices. Journal of Special Education Technology, 29(2), 39–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/016264341402900204

24.

Roper

L. H.

(2007). The 1701 “Act for the Better Ordering of Slaves”: Reconsidering the history of slavery in proprietary south carolina. The William and Mary Quarterly, 64(2), 395–418. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/4491626

25.

Steele

C. M.

(1997). A threat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance. American Psychologist, 52(6), 613–629. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.52.6.613

26.

Steele

Aronson

(1995). Stereotype threat and the intellectual test performance of African Americans. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(5), 797–811. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.5.797

27.

Supreme Court Of The United States (1896). U.S. Reports: Plessy v. Ferguson, 163. U.S. 537. [Periodical] Retrieved from the Library of Congress https://www.loc.gov/item/usrep163537/.