Using Technology as a Compensatory Technique for Executive Function Skill Deficits During the Coaching Process

Abstract

Enrollment rates of students with disabilities (SWD) in postsecondary education continue to rise, yet SWD continue to face challenges with persistence toward degree completion. Executive function deficits (e.g., difficulty concentrating, managing time, problem solving, or planning) often impact academic, social, and occupational function. Academic and social adjustment to the complexity of life beyond students' homes can be stressful, further exacerbating difficulties with executive function skills necessary for postsecondary success. Coaching can assist young adults during postsecondary education to enhance executive function skills and has the potential to reduce stress and anxiety. Coaching is a collaborative, client-centered process designed to elicit client identification of goal areas, increase self-awareness, and problem-solving solutions. This practitioner article explores executive function skills, coaching, and how technology can be used within the coaching process to support executive function deficits for students in the postsecondary environment.

Keywords

coaching college students executive function skills postsecondary education and executive dysfunction technology to support executive function skills

Vignette

Orson is a 20- year-old full-time undergraduate sophomore majoring in computer engineering who lives on-campus with three other roommates. Orson has diagnoses of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). He is frustrated because the transition to college has been difficult. He stated he has done poorly on tests, has trouble managing time, and feels disorganized. He was able to pass his first semester freshman year but ended up dropping two out four classes during his second semester. Orson heard about the executive function coaching program at his college from a professor and is hoping it will help him with the skills he needs to succeed.

Introduction

Key legislation including the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004) and the Higher Education Opportunity Act (2008) support equal education opportunities for students with disabilities (SWD) to achieve academic and professional goals (Raue & Lewis, 2011). As a result, the number of SWD enrolling in postsecondary education continues to increase, currently comprising 19.4% of undergraduates (U.S. Department of Education, 2021). According to a report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2), 44% of SWD were enrolled in two-year colleges, 32% were enrolled in vocational schools, and 19% were enrolled in four-year universities Yet, completion rates for SWD were only 34% compared to 51% for students without disabilities (Newman et al., 2011).

The advantages associated with a college education are numerous including higher lifetime earnings, increased employment opportunities, improved access to healthcare benefits and preventative care, increased desirable health outcomes (e.g., healthy diet, decreased obesity rates, drinking and smoking), and overall satisfaction with quality of life (Ma et al., 2016). Current predictions estimate 70% of employment in the United States by 2027 will require some postsecondary education (Blumenstyk, 2020). However, SWD continue to face challenges with persistence towards degree completion (Marino et al., 2020; Madaus et al., 2021), placing them at risk for decreased employment opportunities and increased incidence of illness and disease (Carnevale et al., 2016).

The college environment presents increased academic and social demands on students (Lindsay et al., 2019; Prevatt & Levrini, 2015). A primary challenge for SWD in the postsecondary environment that negatively impacts persistence and graduation is deficits in executive function (EF; Goudreau & Knight, 2018; Marino et al., 2020). Executive function deficits impact academic, social, and occupational domains (DuPaul et al., 2009; Grieve et al., 2014). Deficits in EF are a predominant factor in many disabilities including conduct disorder (Zelazo, 2020), specific learning disability (SLD) (Kennedy, 2017), autism spectrum disorders (ASD) (Leung et al., 2016), and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Goudreau & Knight, 2018), traumatic brain injury (TBI), epilepsy, tic disorders, emotional and psychiatric conditions (e.g., depression, anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder), and medication side effects (Rabinovici et al., 2015). Students with disabilities are more likely to be underprepared with skills such as organization, planning, self-regulation, and study strategies needed for success (D’Alessio & Banerjee, 2016; Parker & Boutelle, 2009).

Executive dysfunction is also correlated with increased levels of anxiety (O’Rourke et al., 2020) that may be present when students enter the postsecondary environment and realize they are underprepared. According to the Digest of Education Statistics, in 2015-2016, 19% of undergraduate college students reported having a disability and 17% of those reported difficulty concentrating, remembering, or making decisions (Snyder et al., 2019). A survey of college students in the fall of 2018 revealed 29.5% of students reported feeling overwhelming anxiety in the last two weeks (Statista, 2020). Student’s academic and social success can be hindered by anxiety associated with deficits in EF skills.

To address the increased need for support, some institutions are implementing new support mechanisms such as mentoring (Lindsay et al., 2019) and coaching (Marino et al., 2020; Richman et al., 2014). As indicated by research, coaching can help SWD enhance their EF skills, increase their self-awareness, and develop techniques to achieve self-determined goals during postsecondary education (Goudreau & Knight, 2018; Parker & Boutelle, 2009). This manuscript will discuss how EF coaching has been implemented as a means to support postsecondary SWD during the challenging adjustment to college life.

Executive Function Skills

Executive function (EF) skills form a foundation for knowledge attainment and control over related purposeful behavior required for creating and reaching goals (Doebel, 2020; Rabinovici et al., 2015; Zelazo et al., 2016). Constructs often associated with EF include cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibitory control (Diamond, 2013; Kassai et al., 2019; Miyake & Friedman, 2012). Development of EF skills continue into adulthood (Cristofori et al., 2019) and appear to have genetic origins (Friedman et al., 2008), with each skill becoming neurologically linked to the development of the prefrontal cortex (PFC) based on experience as individuals grow from childhood to adulthood (Diamond, 2013). Numerous researchers have identified EF as a better predictor of academic learning and achievement than an intelligence quotient (Kassai et al., 2019; Zelazo et al., 2016). Executive function is also associated with social competence (Diamond, 2013), physical health (Crescioni et al., 2011), quality of life (Sharfi & Rosenblum, 2016), academic performance (Zelazo et al., 2016), and effective transition from school to post-school environments (Diamond, 2013).

Using an extended phenotype model, Barkley (2012) improved on definitions of EF, stating “… the use of self-directed actions so as to choose goals and to select, enact, and sustain actions across time toward those goals usually in the context of others often relying on social and cultural means for the maximization of one’s longer-term welfare as the person defines that to be” (p.176). This definition includes crucial elements of self-regulation such as motivation and self-monitoring required for choosing, sustaining, and meeting goals within a particular context. Human development is predictable yet variable depending on experience. Likewise, the development of EF skills depends on experiences supporting those skills (Zelazo et al., 2016). Executive function skills can change and be learned with positive guidance.

Vignette

Orson noted he has difficulty planning and organizing time to complete academic tasks, forgets due dates, misplaces items he needs, has had difficulty making friendships and feeling included, and has overwhelming anxiety about disappointing his parents because he is not doing well in college. Orson understood he would have to learn to manage increased demands associated with independence in college and to do so would require help geared towards supporting his EF skills. Orson began working with an EF coach who noted their work together would be based specifically on Orson’s current needs to develop self-awareness and self-regulation required for optimal EF function. See Table 1 for a description of Orson’s challenges in reference to EF skill areas.

Table 1.

Executive Function Constructs and Orson’s Challenges.

Executive Function Construct	Challenges
Attentional control	*Difficulty reading long documents and staying focused during lectures
	*Easily distracted while studying or during conversation and group work
	*Unfinished assignments, repeating questions, staring off into space
Planning	*Frequently late or missed classes
	*Assignments may be late or poor in quality
	*Difficulty making decisions and prioritizing
Working memory	*Difficulty multitasking (e.g., taking notes during lecture)
	*Forgetfulness (e.g., missing assignments, difficulty following directions with multiple steps)
	*Difficulty following conversations
Inhibitory control	*Difficulty following through to task completion
	*Preoccupation with technology
	*Rush through assignments without checking work
	*Respond and make decisions too rapidly
Cognitive flexibility	*Difficulty understanding different ways of thinking from one’s own
	*Difficulty adjusting to new routines
	*Struggle with abstract concepts
Emotional regulation	*Inappropriate emotional reactions (e.g., yelling at roommates when dishes piled in sink)
	*Easily annoyed or upset
	*Underestimate time and effort required for tasks
	*Constant feelings of anxiety about social and academic situations

Description of Executive Function Constructs

After careful reflection of challenges impeding EF skills, the coach explores technological options with Orson and organizes these options within the parameters of EF constructs. Executive function constructs (i.e., cognitive flexibility, working memory, and inhibition) are not isolated skills, they all work together in the pursuit of domain specific goals and are influenced by a person’s context and environment (Doebel, 2020). Inhibitory control is the ability to suppress responses associated with irrelevant stimuli (Zelazo et al., 2016). For example, attending to a lesson in school while ignoring distractions such as friends or cell phones. In addition, inhibitory control allows for self-control over impulsivity in behaviors and actions. The ability to stay on task despite desires to participate in other activities is a function of inhibitory control.

Working memory is the ability to hold information temporarily and maneuver it as needed to problem solve during cognitive tasks (Diamond, 2013; Rapport et al., 2013). For instance, recalling facts and applying them to an exam or taking notes of key points during a class lecture. The ability to remember and use multiple steps while cooking a recipe is also dependent on working memory skills. Students completing college level coursework must be able to effectively manipulate and process information for successful progression in any given course.

Cognitive flexibility is the ability to think about things in various ways, switching attention and tasks as needed (Miyake et al., 2000), and adjusting, allowing for adaptation as necessary (Zelazo et al., 2016; Diamond, 2013). A student’s ability to transition from lessons in one subject area to another requires cognitive flexibility, as does the ability to understand differing viewpoints. Cognitive flexibility requires both working memory and inhibition skills.

If a college student values good grades and knows high scores will please their parents or professor, they may exert increased inhibitory control during academic tasks compared to a student who does not place such a value on high grades. Another contextual influence on EF is a student’s social life. If a student recently had an argument with a friend or significant other, ruminating thoughts may negatively impact full working memory capacity required for academic success. Some students are prepared for the drastic increase in independence when starting college because their culture has supported college education for generations, other students are less prepared as first-generation college students themselves.

Vignette

Orson was provided with transition services while in secondary school in accordance with the 2004 reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Orson noted he felt the IEP team listened to his preferences, needs, goals, and interests. When he made the decision to attend postsecondary school, Orson and his parents were provided with information regarding registering with Student Accessibility Services (SAS) at the university to ensure access to higher education with reasonable accommodations. Based on evaluations and recommendations, the disability specialist provided Orson with testing accommodations including additional time and a distraction-limited environment. However, Orson soon realized he no longer had the support of educators, his parents, and school support staff to ensure he was prepared and completed his assignments in an organized and timely fashion. Orson noted he felt ashamed and embarrassed and was worried his professors would think less of him because of the accommodations afforded to him.

Supports Available in the Postsecondary Environment

Individuals with disabilities in higher education can gain access to accommodations through offices of disability services at their college or university, yet many students do not take advantage of this opportunity (Newman & Madaus, 2015; Kennedy, 2017). According to a report based on data from NLST2, 87% of students with disabilities received accommodations or supports in secondary school, compared to only 19% in postsecondary institutions. (Newman et al., 2011). The postsecondary education system offers a variety of services, but students do not take advantage of them for a variety of reasons highlighted below.

Recent research illuminates some of the reasons SWD are not taking advantage of accommodations and supports offered at postsecondary institutions. Lyman et al., (2016) completed a qualitative study to gain deeper understanding regarding the barriers SWD face in accessing and utilizing accommodations. Findings included student desire for independence and self-sufficiency. Participants noted they did not want to be viewed differently from others or be a burden to their peers and instructors. An additional theme was lack of knowledge regarding accommodations and services available, as well as the perception of services being useful and effective for specific needs. The fear of future ramifications including disability status on transcripts or not receiving strong letters of support because of disability status was reported as reasons for not utilizing accommodations. An additional research study found students with learning disabilities often lack the self-advocacy skills necessary to request accommodations and services (Hadley, 2006). Adequate provisions and positive guidance are needed to ensure SWD can access and receive supports appropriate for their needs in the postsecondary environment.

Vignette

In addition to feeling embarrassed about receiving accommodations, Orson realized he was grossly underprepared to even take his exams. Orson noted he has difficulty planning and organizing time to complete academic tasks, forgets due dates, misplaces items he needs, has had difficulty making friendships and feeling included, and has overwhelming anxiety about disappointing his parents because he is not doing well in college. Orson understood he would have to learn to manage increased demands associated with independence in college and to do so would require help geared towards supporting his EF skills.

Coaching

Coaching is a collaborative, client-centered process designed to elicit client identification of goal areas and increase self-awareness and problem-solving solutions (Parker et al., 2018; Richman et al., 2014). Parker & Boutelle (2009) noted the use of specific questioning in the coaching process to increase student self-awareness and identification of goal areas. Both problem-based (Kennedy, 2017) and strengths-based learning (Harrington et al., 2021) are often used for identification of goals and action plans during the coaching process.

Kennedy (2017) proposed a dynamic model of coaching designed to teach individuals how to understand their EF skill function within varied contexts. A dynamic model such as this molds well with the cyclical process of self-regulated learning, as students’ needs are constantly changing based on academic demands, context, emotions, and environment. Forethought, performance, and self-regulation facilitated within the coaching process can guide students as they navigate decreased structure and adult support in the postsecondary environment (O’Rourke et al., 2020). Jarosz (2016) discovered the successful coaching relationship includes analysis of what is right with the client, is designed equally by the coach and client, and must be created in a safe and open environment. The coaching relationship is a dynamic, individualized, and holistic approach, ideal for addressing the cyclical nature of self-regulation skills required for growth in EF dysfunction.

Vignette

Using a strengths-based approach, the coach asked questions to encourage Orson to identify skills he would be able to use to help compensate for deficits in EF skills. Orson stated he has excellent technology skills and agreed to explore a variety of applications (apps) and functions available on his phone, watch, and computer to support his EF skills. The coach explained how the use of compensatory techniques for EF deficits will support academic productivity, social success, and perseverance towards goals that will holistically benefit Orson’s individual needs.

Technology

In addition to academic skill development across content areas, technology can also contribute to the development of EF skills (Desideri et al., 2020). Accessibility features within mainstream devices and available apps continue to grow offering easy to access supports (e.g., time management, organization, reminders) for SWD (Enable Ireland, 2016). There are over 85% of adults who own a smartphone in the United States, and that number rises to 96% for those aged 18 to 29 (Pew Research Center, 2021). Keeping up with the explosion of technology, recent research has begun to examine the use of apps within various coaching programs and discovered positive outcomes (Mohammadi et al., 2018; Spelt et al., 2019; Xie, 2020). The following apps described can support strategies used to reach goals created within EF coaching sessions.

Vignette

Orson and his coach discussed the most pertinent challenges that would benefit from technological support and began exploring options available. Within the coaching session Orson trialed various features and apps to determine usability and usefulness. Orson noted he was feeling overwhelmed with classes and did not want a complicated user experience that was not intuitive when choosing apps to support his EF skills. The technology used must be usable and useful or it will simply just waste data space. After dissecting specific problems impacting academic success (e. g., forgetting due dates, poor focus when studying, anxiety) Orson worked with his coach to choose apps related to his main problem areas (i. e., attentional control/inhibition, planning, and emotional regulation). See Table 2 for technology explored by Orson.

Table 2.

Technology Explored by Orson.

Executive Function Construct	Apps/Features Within Devices	Description	Support Provided
Attentional and inhibitory control	Android: Digital Wellbeing Apple: Focus, Screen Time	Customizable features (e.g., do not disturb, sleep, daily timers for app use), self-tracking of screen time, customize home screen	Minimizes distractions from devices for increased attention to task Improves quality of sleep for optimal daytime function *Supports time management skills
	App: Todoist	Acts as a task manager, customizable, easily linked to calendars and automatically places items into due dates for tasks, includes templates to help users learn how to organize	Supports follow-through and task completion Decreases incidences of missed assignments *Assists with organization to break goals up into manageable subcomponents
	App: Freedom	Blocks apps and internet search for customizable periods of time to increase focus and productivity	Eliminates distractions for increased focus Increases quality of work because of increased attention *Helps build cognitive ability to focus for longer periods of time
	App: Pomofocus	Customizable time tracker with visual cues to signify work time vs. break time	Supports time management skills Visual cues assist with sustained attention to task
Planning and working memory	Calendar feature available within all devices	Customizable, easy to use, add events with options such as repeat, alerts, and options to add invitees to tasks	Supports planning to meet goals and due dates Decreases forgetfulness for meetings, due dates, classes, chores
	App: CalenGoo	Provides scheduling management, synchronizes with Google tasks, includes reminders, repeat, ability to add others, links, and maps to events, and modular layout	Assists with planning and prioritization Supports organization and time management
	App: Habitica	Assists with productivity and planning, gamified features motivate users through a reward system to complete daily habits and routines	Supports planning to reach goal areas Assist with building good habits in planning, organization, and task completion
Emotional regulation	Android: Digital Wellbeing Apple: Focus, Screen Time	Customizable features (e.g., do not disturb, sleep, daily timers for app use), self-tracking of screen time, customize home screen	Supports decreased anxiety by decreasing overwhelming thoughts by setting up notifications (e.g., do not disturb, wind down, daily limits with timers) Assist with time management for increased success with task completion
	App: Welltory	Tracks healthy habits in addition to heart rate and blood pressure monitoring, syncs with other productivity, sleep, and nutrition apps, send guidance to users for stress management	Assists with maintenance of emotional stability Teaches the users how to understand physical cues associated with stress (e.g., rapid heart rate) and how to manage stress (e.g., breathing exercises, coping skills)
	App: Mindfulness Daily	Teaches mindfulness through short breathing pauses, short or longer guided meditations, and user check-ins about mood and stress levels	Assists users in the development of emotional regulation Provides specific tools and alerts to help decrease anxiety and maintain emotional stability

For example, The features Focus, Screen Time within iOS devices and Digital Wellbeing within Android devices allow for customizable settings (e.g., do not disturb, sleep) and self-tracking of screen time to increase overall energy and focus towards domain specific goals. Some of the many apps specific for the area of attentional and inhibitory control assist with time management both in planning and in keeping focus when completing tasks. TimeCamp tracks time automatically assisting with productivity, Freedom allows the user to set blocking controls, and Todoist acts as a task manager. Both Rescue Time and Pomofocus are customizable time trackers.

Calendar features within devices have several customizable features (e.g., alerts, syncing features, recurring events) beneficial for planning and keeping track of tasks. There are also many available planning apps with additional features. Calengoo offers customizable variations on how to view events, tasks, and details. The user can set events to continue if they are not completed. Any.do and Things 3 also include many customizable features for planning and keeping track of tasks to improve productivity. Habitica sets itself apart from other productivity and planning apps by gamifying features, including built-in rewards and punishment for motivation to remember and complete goal related tasks.

The features Focus, Screen Time within iOS devices and Digital Wellbeing within Android devices can also benefit emotional regulation by decreasing feelings of anxiety associated with being overwhelmed. Various apps available include Happify which offers games and programs to decrease stress and negative thoughts, Samsung Health allows a user to customize and track sleep, nutrition, and exercise for overall well-being. Similar to Samsung Health, Welltory tracks healthy habits in addition to heart rate and blood pressure monitoring allowing the user to understand physical cues that indicate dysregulation. Both Aura and Mindfulness Daily offer mindfulness exercises to increase awareness of emotional states.

There are many apps available to support EF skills. With constant growth in technology apps can quickly become obsolete and prices fluctuate often. The apps described here are available for both iOS and Android devices and prices were not listed due to continual market changes. When exploring apps, it is imperative for the technology to be usable and useful to the user to encourage most effective outcomes.

Outcomes

After exploration, Orson’s coach encouraged him to choose just one or two apps or features for each EF area in need of support and to use consistently for at least a week to develop the habit of using these supports. For attentional and inhibitory control Orson integrated the use of Todoist to manage timelines for academic work, home maintenance tasks (e.g., laundry, dishes), and exercise routines. He also used Pomofocus to break academic assignments into attainable pieces of time (e.g., 15 minutes on task, 10-minute breaks) for successful completion. Orson stated he felt less overwhelmed when placing all tasks into Todoist as it allowed him to visually see he had the time to complete all tasks and Pomofocus alerts assist him to balance breaks for increased productivity. Orson found his motivation increased greatly using the gamified features of Habitica with the built-in rewards and punishments for tasks completed, or not. Lastly, Orson found Welltory a wonderful way to track health in addition the heart rate tracker cued him to practice deep breathing and mindfulness when feeling overwhelming anxiety. Orson noted having a coach to help facilitate compensatory techniques to support his EF skills helped him realize he was able to manage academic, health, and social independence for success.

Conclusion

The increased academic and social demands in the postsecondary environment can be overwhelming for all students, particularly those with executive dysfunction. Research demonstrates coaching can be a beneficial support to facilitate self-awareness and self-regulation required for a student to understand steps to take for success. The recent tremendous growth in technology allows for student-centered choice in compensatory supports for EF deficits through both features available within devices and apps. Through careful dissection of challenges and exploration of technology available within the coaching process students with executive dysfunction can access valuable tools for support and subsequent success.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Kiera Anderson

Matthew T. Marino

Author Biographies

Kiera Anderson, PhD, OTR/L, has over 20 years of experience working with individuals with disabilities. She currently works as the internship experiences manager for the Inclusive Education Services program and project coordinator for FOCUS, an undergraduate executive function coaching program, at the University of Central Florida.

Matthew T. Marino, PhD, is a professor of Exceptional Education at the University of Central Florida. Dr. Marino’s research focuses on technology-enhanced solutions to improve accessibility of curricular materials for a diverse range of learners. He develops strategic programs and partnerships to solve critical challenges in undergraduate and K-12 education.

References

Barkley

R. A.

(2012). Executive functions: What they are, how they work, and why they evolved. Guilford Press.

Blumenstyk

(2020). By 2020, they said, 2 out of 3 jobs would need more than a high-school diploma. Were they right? The Chronicle of Higher Education. https://www.chronicle.com/newsletter/the-edge/2020-01-22

Carnevale

A. P.

Jayasundera

Gulish

(2016). Americas divided recovery: College haves and have-nots. Georgetown University Center on Education and the Workforce. https://cew.georgetown.edu/wp-content/uploads/Americas-Divided-Recovery-web.pdf

Crescioni

A. W.

Ehrlinger

Alquist

J. L.

Conlon

K. E.

Baumeister

R. F.

Schatschneider

Dutton

G. R.

(2011). High trait self-control predicts positive health behaviors and success in weight loss. Journal of Health Psychology, 16(5), 750–759. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105310390247

Cristofori

Cohen-Zimerman

Grafman

(2019). Executive functions. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 163, 197–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-804281-6.00011-2

D'Alessio

K. A.

Banerjee

(2016). Academic Advising as an Intervention for College Students with ADHD. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 29(2), 109–121. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1113031

Desideri

Di Santantonio

Varrucciu

Bonsi

Di Sarro

(2020). Assistive technology for cognition to support executive functions in autism: A scoping review. Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders, 4(4), 330–343. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41252-020-00163-w

Diamond

(2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

Doebel

(2020). Rethinking executive function and its development. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(4), 942–956. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691620904771

10.

DuPaul

G. J.

Weyandt

L. L.

O’Dell

S. M.

Varejao

(2009). College Students With ADHD: Current Status and Future Directions. Journal of Attention Disorders, 13(3), 234–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054709340650

11.

Enable Ireland (2016). Assistive technology for people with disabilities and older people: A discussion paper. https://www.enableireland.ie/sites/default/files/publication/ATPaperfinalversion.pdf

12.

Friedman

N. P.

Miyake

Young

S. E.

DeFries

J. C.

Corley

R. P.

Hewitt

J. K.

(2008). Individual differences in executive functions are almost entirely genetic in origin. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 137(2), 201–225. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.137.2.201

13.

Goudreau

S. B.

Knight

(2018). Executive function coaching: assisting with transitioning from secondary to postsecondary education. Journal of Attention Disorders, 22(4), 379–387. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715583355

14.

Grieve

Webne-Behrman

Couillou

Sieben-Schneider

(2014). Self-report assessment of executive functioning in college students with disabilities. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 27(1), 19–32. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1029638

15.

Hadley

W. M.

(2006). LD students' access to higher education: Self-advocacy and support. Journal of Developmental Education, 30(2), 10.

16.

Harrington

E. E.

Santos

G. O.

Potvin

M. C.

(2021). Postsecondary education students with disabilities’ perceptions of occupational therapy-led coaching. The Open Journal of Occupational Therapy, 9(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.15453/2168-6408.1790

17.

Higher Education Opportunity Act (2008). Higher education opportunity act of 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-315, 122 Stat. 3078. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/PLAW-110publ315/pdf/PLAW-110publ315.pdf

18.

Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act (2004). Individuals with disabilities education Improvement act of 2004, Pub. L. No. 108-446, 118 Stat. 2647. https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/STATUTE-118/html/STATUTE-118-Pg2647.htm

19.

Jarosz

(2016). What is life coaching?: An integrative review of the evidence-based literature. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring, 14(1), 34–56. https://radar.brookes.ac.uk/radar/file/c8c5109a-e29e-4a70-b85e-bb2f2db40e54/1/vol14issue1-paper-03.pdf

20.

Kassai

Futo

Demetrovics

Takacs

Z. K.

(2019). A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence on the near-and far-transfer effects among children’s executive function skills. Psychological Bulletin, 145(2), 165–188. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1037/bul0000180

21.

Kennedy

M. R. T.

(2017). Coaching college students with executive function problems. The Guilford Press.

22.

Leung

R. C.

Vogan

V. M.

Powell

T. L.

Anagnostou

Taylor

M. J.

(2016). The role of executive functions in social impairment in Autism Spectrum Disorder. Child Neuropsychology, 22(3), 336–344. https://doi.org/10.1080/09297049.2015.1005066

23.

Lindsay

Lamptey

D. L.

Cagliostro

Srikanthan

Mortaji

Karon

(2019). A systematic review of post-secondary transition interventions for youth with disabilities. Disability and Rehabilitation, 41(21), 2492–2505. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638288.2018.1470260

24.

Lyman

Beecher

M. E.

Griner

Brooks

Call

Jackson

(2016). What keeps students with disabilities from using accommodations in postsecondary education? A qualitative review. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 29(2), 123–140. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1112978

25.

Madaus

J. W.

Gelbar

Dukes

L. L.

Taconet

Faggella-Luby

(2021). Are there predictors of success for students with disabilities pursuing postsecondary education? Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 44(4), 191–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143420976526

26.

Pender

Welch

(2016). Education pays 2016: The benefits of higher education for individuals and society. In Trends in higher education Series. College Board. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED572548.pdf

27.

Marino

M. T.

Vasquez

Banerjee

Parsons

C. A.

Saliba

Y. C.

Gallegos

Koch

(2020). Coaching as a means to enhance performance and persistence in undergraduate STEM majors with executive function deficits. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 20(5), 94–109.

28.

Miyake

Friedman

N. P.

(2012). The nature and organization of individual differences in executive functions: Four general conclusions. Current Direction in Psychological Science, 2(1), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411429458

29.

Miyake

Friedman

N. P.

Emerson

M. J.

Witzki

A. H.

Howerter

Wager

T. D.

(2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

30.

Mohammadi

Ayatolahi Tafti

Hoveidamanesh

Ghanavati

Pournik

(2018). Reflection on mobile applications for blood pressure management: a systematic review on potential effects and initiatives. In Building Continents of Knowledge in Oceans of Data: The Future of Co-Created eHealth (pp. 306–310). IOS Press. https://doi.org/10.3233/978-1-61499-852-5-306

31.

Newman

L. A.

Madaus

J. W.

(2015). Reported accommodations and supports provided to secondary and postsecondary students with disabilities: National perspective. Career Development and Transition for Exceptional Individuals, 38(3), 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/2165143413518235

32.

Newman

Wagner

Knokey

A.-M.

Marder

Nagle

Shaver

Wei

with Cameto

Contreras

Ferguson

Greene

Schwarting

(2011). The post-high school outcomes of young adults with disabilities up to 8 Years after high school. A report from the National Longitudinal transition study-2 (NLTS2) (NCSER 2011-3005). SRI International. https://ies.ed.gov/ncser/pubs/20113005/pdf/20113005.pdf

33.

O’Rourke

E. J.

Halper

L. F.

Vaysman

(2020). Examining the relations among emerging adult coping, executive function, and anxiety. Emerging Adulthood, 8(3), 209–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696818797531

34.

Parker

D. R.

Boutelle

(2009). Executive function coaching for college students with learning disabilities and ADHD: A new approach for fostering self-determination. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 24(4), 204–215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00294.x

35.

Parker

D. R.

Sleeper-Triplett

Field

Sawilowsky

(2018). ADHD college coaching: Potential adverse events. The ADHD Report, 26(2), 10–14. https://guilfordjournals.com/doi/pdf/10.1521/adhd.2018.26.2.10

36.

Pew Research Center . (2021, April 7). Mobile fact sheet. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/fact-sheet/mobile/.

37.

Prevatt

Levrini

(2015). ADHD coaching: A guide for mental health professionals. American Psychological Association.

38.

Rabinovici

G. D.

Stephens

M. L.

Possin

K. L.

(2015). Executive dysfunction. Continuum (Minneapolis, Minn, 21(3 Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychiatry), 646–659. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.CON.0000466658.05156.54

39.

Rapport

M. D.

Orban

S. A.

Kofler

M. J.

Friedman

L. M.

(2013). Do programs designed to train working memory, other executive functions, and attention benefit children with ADHD? A meta-analytic review of cognitive, academic, and behavioral outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 33(8), 1237–1252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2013.08.005

40.

Raue

Lewis

(2011). Students with disabilities at degree-Granting postsecondary institutions. First Look. NCES 2011-018. National Center for Education Statistics. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED520976

41.

Richman

E. L.

Rademacher

K. N.

Maitland

T. L.

(2014). Coaching and college success. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 27(1), 33–50. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1029647.pdf

42.

Sharfi

Rosenblum

(2016). Executive functions, time organization and quality of life among adults with learning disabilities. PloS one, 11(12), e0166939. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0166939

43.

Snyder

T. D.

de Brey

Dillow

S. A.

(2019). Digest of education Statistics 2017 (NCES 2018-070). National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2018/2018070.pdf

44.

Spelt

Tsiampalis

Karnaki

Kouvari

Zota

Linos

Westerink

(2019). Lifestyle E-Coaching for Physical Activity Level Improvement: Short-Term and Long-Term Effectivity in Low Socioeconomic Status Groups. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(22), 4427. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.3390/ijerph16224427

45.

Statista (2020). Percentage of U.S. college students that had ever felt overwhelming anxiety as of fall 2018. https://www.statista.com/statistics/826896/anxiety-among-us-college-students/

46.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2021). Digest of education Statistics, 2019 (2021-009). https://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=60

47.

Xie

(2020). On the exploration of a mobile executive functioning coaching solution for students with and without disabilities in post-secondary STEM education. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 14(2), 136–160. https://doi.org/10.1504/ijmlo.2020.106165

48.

Zelazo

P. D.

(2020). Executive function and psychopathology: a neurodevelopmental perspective. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 16, 431–454. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-072319-024242

49.

Zelazo

P. D.

Blair

C. B.

Willoughby

M. T.

(2016). Executive function: Implications for education (NCER 2017-2000). National Center for Education Research, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. http://ies.ed.gov/