We first examined how war-related traumatic events impact on peer and sibling relations, and how the quality of these relations in turn are associated with children’s mental health, indicating a mediation model. Second, we tested the moderating (protective) effects of good peer and sibling relations in attenuating the link between trauma and mental health. The participants were 227 Palestinian boys and girls aged 10—14 years living in the Gaza Strip. They reported\ their exposure to military trauma, evaluated the qualities of peer relationships (loneliness and friendship) and siblingship (warmth, intimacy, conflict and rivalry), and reported symptoms of PTSD, CDI depression and SDQ psychological distress. The results show that exposure to military trauma was associated with intense rivalry in sibling relations and with low friendship quality especially among girls and younger children. The association between military trauma and symptoms was mediated by poor friendship and rivaling sibling relations. Only sibling relations but not peer relations had a moderating effect, as military trauma was not associated with severe symptoms among children who enjoyed considerable intimacy and warmth and lacked rivalry in their siblingships. We discuss theoretical and practical implications of the roles of peer and sibling relations in helping children in traumatic war conditions.
Abdeen, Z., Qasrawi, R., & Nabil, S. ( 2008). Psychological reactions to Israeli occupation: Findings from the national study of school-based screening in Palestine. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 290-297.
2.
Aiken, L.S., & West, S.G. ( 1991). Multiple regressions: Testing and interpreting interactions . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
3.
Ajdukovic, D., & Biruski, D.C. ( 2008). Caught between the ethnic sides: Children growing up in a divided post-war community. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 32, 337-347.
4.
Al-Krenawi, A., Graham, J.R., & Sehwail, M.A. ( 2004). Mental health and violence/trauma in Palestine: Implications for helping professional practice. Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 35, 185-209.
5.
Armstrong, M., Birnie-Lefcovitch, S., & Ungar, M. ( 2005). Pathways between social support, family well being, quality of parenting, and child resilience: What we know. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 14, 269-281.
6.
Asher, S.R., Hymel, S., & Renshaw, P.D. ( 1984). Loneliness in children. Child Development , 55, 1456-1464.
7.
Baker, A., & Shalhoub-Kevorkian, N. (1999). Effects of political and military traumas on children: The Palestinian case. Clinical Psychology Review, 19, 935-950.
8.
Baron, R.M., & Kenny, D.A. ( 1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
9.
Bliese, P.D., & Halverson, R.R. (1998). Group consensus and psychological well-being: A large field study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28, 563-580.
10.
Boutot, E.A. ( 2009). Using ‘‘I will’’ cards and social coaches to improve social behaviors of students with Asperger syndrome. Intervention in School & Clinic, 44, 276-281.
11.
Branje, S.J.T., van Lieshout, C.F.M., van Aken, M.A.G., & Haselager, G.J.T. (2004). Perceived support in sibling relationships and adolescent adjustment. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1385-1396.
12.
Brendgen, M., Vitaro, F., Bukowski, W.M., Doyle, A.B., & Markiewicz, D. (2001). Developmental profiles of peer social preference over the course of elementary school. Developmental Psychology, 37, 308-321.
13.
Brewin, C.R., & Andrews, B. ( 2000). Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 68, 748-767.
14.
Brody, G.H. ( 1998). Sibling relationship quality: Its causes and consequences . Annual Review of Psychology, 49, 1-24.
15.
Bukowski, W. ( 2004). Research on children’s and adolescents’ friendships: Four old and new questions that deserve our attention. International Journal of Behavioral Development. Supplement, serial no. 46., 28, 7-10.
16.
Catani, C., Jacob, N., Schauer, E., Kohila, M., & Neuner, F. ( 2008). Family violence, war, and natural disasters: A study of the effect of extreme stress on children’s mental health in Sri Lanka . BMC Psychiatry, 8, 1-10.
17.
Caya, M.L., & Liem, J.H. ( 1998). The role of sibling support in high-conflict families . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 68, 327-334.
18.
Collins, W.A., & Laursen, B. ( 2004). Changing relationships, changing youth: Interpersonal contexts of adolescent development. The Journal of Early Adolescence , 24, 55-62.
19.
Compas, B., Worsham, N., & Ey, S. ( 1992). Conceptual and developmental issues in children’s coping with stress. In L.S.A. La Creca , J. Wallander, & C. Walker (Eds.), Stress and coping in child health (pp. 7-24). New York, NY: Guildford .
20.
Deater-Deckard, K., Dunn, J., & Lussier, G. ( 2002). Sibling relationships and social-emotional adjustment in different family contexts. Social Development, 11, 571-590.
21.
Dunn, J. ( 2004). Children’s friendships: The beginnings of intimacy . Malden, MA: Blackwell.
22.
Dunn, J., Slomkowski, C., & Beardsall, L. ( 1994). Sibling relationships from the preschool period through middle childhood and early adolescence. Developmental Psychology , 30, 315-324.
23.
Fox, T.L., Barrett, P.M., & Shortt, A.L. ( 2002). Sibling relationships of anxious children: A preliminary investigation. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 31, 375-383.
24.
Gass, K., Jenkins, J., & Dunn, J. ( 2007). Are sibling relationships protective? A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 48(2), 167-175.
25.
Gifford-Smith, M.E., & Brownell, C.A. (2003). Childhood peer relationships: Social acceptance, friendships, and peer networks. Journal of School Psychology, 41(4), 235-285.
26.
Goetting, A. ( 1986). The developmental tasks of siblingship over the lifecycle . Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 703-714.
27.
Goodman, R. ( 1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581-586.
28.
Greeff, A.P., & van der Merwe, S. (2004). Variables associated in resilience in divorced families. Social Indicators Research , 68, 59-75.
29.
Hill, H.M., Levermore, M., Twaite, J., & Jones, L.P. ( 1996). Exposure to community violence and social support as predictors of anxiety and social and emotional behavior among AfricanAmerican children. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 5, 399-415.
30.
Howard, M., & Hodes, M. ( 2000). Psychopathology, adversity, and service utilization of young refugees. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 368-378.
31.
Howe, N., Aquan-Assee, J., Bukowski, W.M., Lehoux, P.M., & Rinaldi, C.M. ( 2001). Siblings as confidants: Emotional understanding, relationship warmth, and sibling self-disclosure. Social Development, 10, 439.
32.
Joann WuShortt, G.R., & Gottman, J.M. ( 1997). Closeness in young adult sibling relationships: Affective and physiological process. Social Development, 6, 142-164.
33.
Jordan, B.K., Marmar, C.R., Fairbank, J.A., Schlenger, W.E., Kulka, R.A., Hough, R.L., et al. (1992). Problems in families of male Vietnam veterans with posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 916-926.
34.
Kaslow, N.J., & Deering, C.G. ( 1994). Depressed children and their families. Clinical Psychology Review, 14, 35-59.
35.
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. ( 2003). Social self-efficacy and behavior problems in maltreated and nonmaltreated children. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 32, 106-117.
36.
Kovacs, M. ( 1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children . Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 46, 305-315.
37.
Layne, C.M., Saltzman, W.R., Burlingame, G.M., Davies, R., Popovic, T., Duraković, E., et al. (2001). Unicef technical report: Effectiveness of the Unicef school-based psychosocial program for war-exposed adolescents .
38.
Leavitt, K.S., Gardner, S.A., Gallagher, M.M., & Schamess, G. ( 1998). Severely traumatized siblings: A treatment strategy. Clinical Social Work Journal, 26, 55-71.
39.
Montgomery, E., & Foldspang, A. ( 2005). Seeking asylum in Denmark: Refugee children’s mental health and exposure to violence. European Journal of Public Health, 15, 233-237.
40.
Morgos, D., Worden, J.W., & Gupta, L. ( 2007). Psychosocial effects of war experiences among displaced children in Southern Darfur. Omega: Journal of Death & Dying, 56, 229-253.
41.
Nader, K.O., Pynoos, R.S., Fairbanks, L.A., al-Ajeel, M., & al-Asfour, A. ( 1993). A preliminary study of PTSD and grief among the children of Kuwait following the gulf crisis. The British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 32, 407-416.
42.
Ozer, E.J., Best, S.R., Lipsey, T.L., & Weiss, D.S. ( 2003). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder and symptoms in adults: A meta-analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 52-74.
43.
Paardekooper, B., de Jong, J.T.V.M., & Hermanns, J.M.A. (1999). The psychological impact of war and the refugee situation on south Sudanese children in refugee camps in Northern Uganda: An exploratory study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 529-536.
44.
Pine, D.S., Costello, J., & Masten, A. ( 2005). Trauma, proximity, and developmental psychopathology: The effects of war and terrorism on children. Neuropsychopharmacology , 30, 1781-1792.
45.
Preacher, K.J., & Hayes, A. ( 2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments and Computers, 36, 717-731.
46.
Punamäki, R.-L. ( 2006). Resiliency in conditions of war and military violence: Preconditions and developmental processes. In M.E.G.M. Flament (Ed.), Working with children and adolescents. An evidence-based approach to risk and resilience (pp. 129-177). New York, NY: Jason Aronson.
47.
Punamäki, R.-L., Qouta, S., & El-Sarraj, E. ( 2001). Resiliency factors predicting psychological adjustment after political violence among Palestinian children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25, 256-268.
48.
Punamäki, R.-L., Qouta, S., & El Sarraj, E. ( 1997). Models of traumatic experiences and children’s psychological adjustment: The roles of perceived parenting and children’s own resources and activity. Child Development, 68, 718-728.
49.
Pupavac, V. ( 2001). Therapeutic governance: Psycho-social intervention and trauma risk management. Disasters, 25, 358-373.
50.
Pynoos, R.S., Steinberg, A.M., & Goenjian, A.K. (1996). Traumatic stress in childhood and adolescence. Recent developments and current controversies. In B.A. Van der Kolk, A.C. McFarlane & L. Weisaeth (Eds.), Traumatic stress. The effects of overwhelming experience on mind, body and society. (pp. 331-358). New York, NY: Guilford.
51.
Pynoos, R.S., Steinberg, A.M., & Piacentini, J.C. (1999). A developmental psychopathology model of childhood traumatic stress and intersection with anxiety disorders . Biological Psychiatry, 46, 1542-1554.
52.
Qouta, S., Punamäki, R.-L., & El Sarraj, E. ( 2005). Mother-child expression of psychological distress in acute war trauma. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry , 10, 135-156.
53.
Ringler, L.L., & Hayden, D.C. ( 2000). Adolescent bereavement and social support: Peer loss compared to other losses. Journal of Adolescent Research, 15, 209-230.
54.
Saigh, P.A., Yasik, A.E., Oberfield, R.A., Halamandaris, P.V., & Bremner, J.D. ( 2006). The intellectual performance of traumatized children and adolescents with or without posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 332-340.
55.
Scharf, M., Shulman, S., & Avigad-Spitz, L. (2005). Sibling relationships in emerging adulthood and in adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Research, 20, 64-90.
56.
Schneider, B.H. ( 2000). Friends and enemies. Peer relations in childhood. London: Arnold.
57.
Seginer, R. ( 1998). Adolescents’ perceptions of relationships with older sibling in the context of other close relationships. Journal of Research on Adolescence (Lawrence Erlbaum), 8, 287-309.
58.
Sherman, A.M., Lansford, J.E., & Volling, B.L. ( 2006). Sibling relationships and best friendships in young adulthood: Warmth, conflict, and well-being. Personal Relationships, 13, 151-166.
59.
Smith, P., Perrin, S., Yule, W., Hacam, B., & Stuvland, R. ( 2002). War exposure among children from Bosnia-Hercegovina: Psychological adjustment in a community sample. Journal of traumatic Stress, 15, 147-156.
60.
Sobel, M.E. ( 1982). Asymptotic confidence intervals for indirect effects in structural equation models. In S. Leinhardt (Ed.), Sociological methodology (pp. 290-312). Washington, DC: American Sociological Association.
61.
Stallard, P. ( 2006). Psychological interventions for post-traumatic reactions in children and young people: A review of randomised controlled trials. Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 895-911.
62.
Stauffacher, K., & DeHart, G.B. (2006). Crossing social contexts: Relational aggression between siblings and friends during early and middle childhood. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 228-240.
63.
Stocker, C.M., Burwell, R.A., & Briggs, M.L. ( 2002). Sibling conflict in middle childhood predicts children’s adjustment in early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology , 16, 50-57.
64.
Thabet, A.A., Ibraheem, A.N., Shivram, R., Winter, E.A., & Vostanis, P. ( 2009). Parenting support and PTSD in children of a war zone . International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 55, 226-237.
65.
Thabet, A.A., Stretch, D., & Vostanis, P. ( 2000). Child mental health problems in Arab children: Application of the strengths and difficulties questionnaire. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 46, 266-280.
66.
Timler, G.R., Olswang, L.B., & Coggins, T.E. ( 2005). ‘‘Do I know what I need to do?’’ A social communication intervention for children with complex clinical profiles . Language, Speech, & Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 73-85.
67.
Wadsworth, M.E., Gudmundsen, G.R., Raviv, T., Ahlkvist, J.A., McIntosh, D.N., Kline, G.H., et al. (2004). Coping with terrorism: Age and gender differences in effortful and involuntary responses to September 11th. Applied Developmental Science, 8, 143-157.
68.
Waldinger, R.J., Vaillant, G.E., & Orav, E.J. ( 2007). Childhood sibling relationships as a predictor of major depression in adulthood: A 30-year prospective study. American Journal of Psychiatry, 164, 949-954.
69.
Yule, W. ( 2000). Emanuel Miller lecture from pogroms to ‘‘ethnic cleansing’’: Meeting the needs of war affected children. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines41, 695-703.
