Relations of shyness–sensitivity and unsociability with adjustment in middle childhood and early adolescence in suburban Chinese children

Abstract

This study examined how shyness–sensitivity and unsociability were associated with social, school, and psychological adjustment in Chinese children and adolescents. Participants included 564 children (272 boys, M_age=9 years) and 462 adolescents (246 boys, M_age=13 years) in a suburban region in China. Data were obtained from peer assessments, sociometric nominations, teacher-ratings, self-reports, and school records. The results showed that relations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment differed in middle childhood and early adolescence. Shyness tended to be associated with social and psychological problems more evidently in adolescence than in childhood. In contrast, unsociability was associated with problems more evidently across domains in childhood than in adolescence. The results indicate that the implications of the two main forms of social withdrawal may vary across developmental periods.

Keywords

Shyness-sensitivity unsociability childhood adolescence

Introduction

Two main forms or types of social withdrawal, shyness–sensitivity and unsociability, have received heightened attention in the fields of peer relationships and socioemotional functioning (e.g., Asendorpf, 1990; Coplan & Armer, 2007). Whereas shyness–sensitivity (or “shyness” in a short form used in this paper) represents an anxious reactivity to challenging social situations, unsociability refers to the low tendency to participate in social interaction or non-fearful preference for solitude. According to a conceptual model proposed by Asendorpf (1990), shyness is derived from conflictual approach and avoidance motivations, indicating internal anxiety, fear, and lack of self-confidence. In contrast to shyness, unsociability is based on low levels of both approach and avoidance in social settings (Asendorpf, 1990). Unsociable children are characterized as lacking a strong desire to play with others although they may not actively avoid peer interaction (e.g., Rubin, Coplan, & Bowker, 2009).

Empirical findings in Western societies, particularly North America, have consistently indicated that, across different ages, shyness is associated with indexes of maladjustment such as internalizing problems, difficulties in peer relationships, and challenges at school (e.g., Coplan et al., 2013; Ladd, Kochenderfer-Ladd, Eggum, Kochel, & McConnell, 2011). The relations between unsociability and adjustment are less clear. The results from relatively limited research programs have emerged to suggest that unsociability is not necessarily associated with social and emotional problems from childhood to early adolescence (e.g., Asendorpf & Meier, 1993; Bowker & Raja, 2011). It has been argued that unsociability, which may indicate a personal choice or autonomous act, is a relatively benign form of social withdrawal (e.g., Coplan & Armer, 2007).

Shyness-Sensitivity and Unsociability in Chinese Children: A Brief Background

In traditional Chinese society where wariness and behavioral restraint are positively evaluated and encouraged (Chen, 2010), children who are shy and sensitive may receive social approval and support, which help them to form positive social relationships, achieve in school, and develop positive feelings about self and others. Indeed, results from a series of studies conducted by Chen and colleagues indicated that shyness–sensitivity was positively associated with social and psychological well-being and negatively associated with problems in Chinese elementary school-age children in the early 1990s (e.g., Chen, Rubin, & Li, 1995). Over the past several decades, however, China has changed dramatically towards a market-oriented society, particularly in urban regions, which has led to greater requirements of initiative-taking skills and self-confidence for adaptation and success (Chen, 2010). As a result, shy–sensitive behavior may be viewed as less valued and more problematic because it is incompatible with the new requirements (Chang et al., 2005; Chen, Cen, Li, & He, 2005).

Relative to shyness–sensitivity, unsociability is likely to be related to more negative social attitudes in China. Unsociability or preference for solitude may conflict with group orientation, and children who have no interest in group interaction and maintain distance from others may be considered anti-collective, selfish, and deviant (Chen & French, 2008). Research has shown that unsociability is associated with adjustment problems (Chen, Wang, & Cao, 2011; Nelson, 2013). Nevertheless, it has recently been found that, along with the social change, urban youth in China started to develop more individualistic values, as indicated by their greater endorsement of personal distinctiveness and the formation of a “unitary and stable” self that is separate from social context (e.g., “I enjoy being unique and different from others in many respects,” “I like to behave in my own way”) (Chen, Wang, & Liu, 2012). It is possible that the emerging values of individuality and self-orientation might weaken the relations between unsociability and adjustment difficulties.

Relations of Shyness–Sensitivity and Unsociability with Adjustment in Middle Childhood and Early Adolescence in Suburban Chinese Context: The Present Study

The main purpose of the study was to examine how shyness–sensitivity and unsociability were associated with social, school, and psychological adjustment in Chinese children and adolescents. We were interested in whether the relations differed in the periods of childhood and early adolescence. To date, few studies of shyness and unsociability have been conducted beyond the middle childhood years (e.g., Bowker & Raja, 2011; Coplan et al., 2013). Moreover, there has been virtually no research directly comparing the relations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment problems in childhood and early adolescence.

Early adolescence is a time during which there are dramatic changes in physical appearance and psychological functioning such as the awakening of autonomy (e.g., Collins & Steinberg, 2006; Li, Zhou, & Zhang, 2007). Perhaps due to the development of social-cognitive abilities (e.g., processing social cues), youth become more attentive to new ideas and values in the society including educational institutions, peer networks, and the mass media, which may represent an important aspect of autonomy (Blakemore & Mills, 2014). As adolescents make the transition to high school, the influence of adult standards declines and peers play a more important role in shaping their attitudes and behaviors (Li et al., 2007). Increased motivation to establish social status in the peer group and extensive experiences in various social environments may also make adolescents particularly sensitive to sociocultural signals including emergent standards and norms (Blakemore & Mills, 2014; Choudhury, 2010). At the same time, as adult influence becomes less significant, adolescents are more likely to make their own judgments (Collins & Steinberg, 2006). Consequently, the traditional values of behavioral restraint and group orientation may have relatively weaker effects on adolescents’ attitudes and behaviors, and the requirements of new qualities such as assertiveness or self-direction may be reflected more evidently in adolescents’ adjustment. As such, it seems reasonable to argue that shyness may be more maladaptive and unsociability may be less maladaptive from childhood to adolescence. Accordingly, we hypothesized in this study that, whereas the relations between shyness and adjustment problems would be stronger in adolescents than in children, relations between unsociability and adjustment problems would be stronger in children than in adolescents.

We conducted the study in a suburban region of Shanghai, China. Families in suburban towns, representing approximately 20% of the total population (or 266 million people) in the country, have traditionally lived agricultural as well as commercial lives. During urbanization in recent years, suburban residents are encouraged to engage in more activities with urban residents, which are facilitated by the extension of transport links such as the light rail systems and the expansion of factories and business centers from cities to the surrounding suburban areas. Relative to the contexts in urban and rural regions, adults and children in most suburban regions have been experiencing more diverse values and lifestyles (e.g., Mao, 2009). We strategically selected the suburban context for the study because it represented a great mixture of traditional and new values and lifestyles, which might allow us to detect different patterns of relations more evidently in childhood and adolescence. Consistent with the previous research (e.g., Chen et al., 2011; Liu, Chen, Li, & French, 2012), we focused on three main aspects of adjustment that are important in school-age children and adolescents: social adjustment including leadership, peer preference, and peer victimization; school adjustment including teacher-rated behavioral and learning problems and academic achievement; and psychological problems including loneliness and depression.

Method

Participants

Participants in the study included 564 3rd and 4th grade elementary school students (272 boys, 292 girls) and 462 7th and 8th grade junior high school students (246 boys, 216 girls). The mean ages of the elementary and high school students were 9.35 years (SD = 10 months) and 13.35 (SD = 8 months), respectively. The students were from four regular public schools in a suburban region of Shanghai selected through the school board without any criteria for exclusion. The schools served students in their geographic area so the students came from the residential area near the schools. The sample was typical of students in the region. There were 33 classes, with approximately 30 students in each class. The structure and organization of elementary and junior high schools are similar in China. One teacher is designated to be in charge of a class. This head teacher or home teacher often teaches a major course and takes care of the social and daily activities of the class.

Almost all the students were of Han ethnicity, a predominant ethnic group (comprising over 90% of the population) in China. The families in the region were mostly in low to middle socioeconomic class. Of the participants, 94% were from intact families, and others were living with one parent because of parental divorce, death, or other reasons. In the sample, 61% and 77% of the participants were only children in the family, and the others had one or more siblings. China implemented the ‘‘one-child-per-family’’ policy since the late 1970s, until it was recently changed to the “two-children-per-family” policy. However, it was less successful in suburban and rural areas than in urban areas. Preliminary analyses indicated no significant effects of sibling status and other demographic variables on the variables or the relations of interest in this study.

Measures

Peer assessments of shyness–sensitivity and unsociability

We assessed participants’ shyness–sensitivity and unsociability using a peer assessment measure (Chen et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2012), adapted from the Revised Class Play (RCP; Masten, Morison, & Pellegrini, 1985). Consistent with Masten et al. (1985) procedure, administrators read each behavioral descriptor and students nominated up to three classmates in the class who could best play the role if they were to direct a class play. Subsequently, nominations received from all classmates were used to compute each item score for each student. Both same-sex and cross-sex nominations were allowed (e.g., Chen et al., 2005). Item scores were standardized within the class to adjust for differences in the number of nominators.

The measure consisted of items assessing shyness–sensitivity (“Very shy,” “Feelings get hurt easily,” “Usually sad”) and unsociability (“Would rather play alone,” “Not interested in participating in activities with others,” “Prefers to do things by himself/herself,” “Does not want to interact with others”); the constellations of the items indicate social wariness and unsociability/social disinterest from the peers’ perspective. Factor analyses indicated that the items loaded on the corresponding factors (loadings ranging from 0.45 to 0.90). The internal reliabilities were 0.70 and 0.71 for shyness and 0.88 and 0.90 for unsociability for children and adolescents, respectively, in the present study, which were consistent with previous studies (Chen et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2012).

Leadership

There are various formal student organizations, which are often hierarchical in nature, in Chinese schools. The leaders of these organizations, elected by peers and teachers, are usually believed to be good students in social, behavioral, and school performance. Data on student leadership were collected from the school records. Leadership was coded as follows: Students who were group leaders within the class received a score of 1; students who held leadership positions at the class level and at the school level received scores of 2 and 3, respectively. Students who did not hold leadership positions were given a score of 0. The scores were standardized within each class to permit appropriate comparisons (see Chen et al., 1995).

Sociometric nominations

Students were asked to nominate up to three classmates with whom they most liked to be and three classmates with whom they least liked to be (positive and negative nominations). The nominations received from all classmates were totaled and then standardized within each class to permit appropriate comparisons. Test–retest reliabilities (interval of two weeks) in a different sample (N = 132) of Chinese children were 0.77 and 0.93 for positive and negative sociometric nominations, respectively. Following the Coie, Dodge, and Coppotelli (1982) procedure, an index of peer preference, which indicates how well an individual is liked by peers in the classroom, was formed by subtracting negative nomination scores from positive nomination scores.

Victimization by peers

A measure of victimization by peers (Schwartz, Chang, & Farver, 2001) was used to assess children’s experiences of victimization. Children were asked to nominate up to three peers to fit each of the four descriptors. The items tapped direct–overt and indirect–relational types of victimization (“Get picked on or teased by other kids,” “Are hit or pushed by other kids,” “Other kids make fun of him/her by calling names,” and “Get left out on purpose during activity or play time”). Nominations received from all classmates were used to compute each item score for each child. The item scores were summed and standardized within the class to form an index of victimization by peers. The internal reliabilities of the measure were 0.85 and 0.89 for children and adolescents in the present study.

Teacher ratings of problems

The head teacher in each class completed a measure of behavioral and learning problems (Chen et al., 2005), adapted from the Teacher Child Rating Scale (T-CRS, Hightower et al., 1986), for each participant in his or her class. Teachers were asked to rate, on a five-point-scale ranging from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very well), how well each of the items described the participant. The measure assessed three major problems: Externalizing problems (e.g., “Disruptive in class”); Internalizing problems (e.g., “Nervous, frightened, tense”); and Learning problems (e.g., “Having problems in learning academic subjects”), with 6 items for each subscale. The total scores on each subscale were standardized within the class to control for the teacher’s response style and to allow for appropriate comparisons. The internal reliabilities of the measure were 0.75 and 0.82 for externalizing, 0.67 and 0.69 for internalizing, and 0.74 and 0.74 for learning problems, for children and adolescents, respectively, in this study.

Academic achievement

Data on academic achievement in Chinese, mathematics, and English, based on the final examinations of the last semester (approximately three months before data collection) conducted by the school, were obtained from the school records. Scores on Chinese, mathematics and English were significantly correlated (rs ranging from 0.70–0.75, ps <0.001), and were summed and standardized within the class to form a single index of academic achievement.

Loneliness

Participants’ loneliness was assessed by a self-report measure, adapted from Asher, Hymel, and Renshaw (1984). The participants were asked to respond to 16 self-statements (e.g., “I have nobody to talk to,” “I feel lonely”) using a five-point scale (1 = not at all true; 5 = always true). Scores were averaged to form an index of loneliness, with higher scores indicating greater feelings of loneliness. The internal reliabilities were 0.87 and 0.91 for children and adolescents, respectively, in this study.

Depression

Children’s depression was assessed using a 14-item measure (Chen, Yang, & Wang, 2013), adapted from the Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI; Kovacs, 1992). Each of the items provides three alternative responses (e.g., “I feel like crying every day”, “I feel like crying most days”, “I feel like crying once in a while”) from which the participant chooses one that best describes him or her in the past two weeks. Each item was scored as 0, 1, and 2, with higher scores indicative of greater depression. The average score of depression was computed and used in the study. The internal reliabilities of this measure were 0.80 and 0.85 for children and adolescents, respectively, in this study.

Procedure

We group administered to the children a peer assessment measure of shyness and unsociability, a peer victimization measure, a sociometric nomination measure, and self-report measures of loneliness and depression. Teachers were asked to complete a rating scale for each participant concerning his or her externalizing, internalizing, and learning problems. In addition, data concerning children’s leadership and academic achievement were obtained from school records.

The Western-based measures were translated and back-translated to ensure their comparability with the original English version. All measures have proved to be reliable, valid, and appropriate in Chinese children (e.g., Chen et al., 2011, 2013; Schwartz et al., 2001). The study was approved by the institutional review board. Informed written consent was obtained from all children and their parents through the school. The participation rate was 98%. Data were collected in 2013.

Results

Correlations among the variables in each group are presented in Table 1. The magnitudes of the correlations among adjustment variables were generally weak or moderate, suggesting that these measures tapped different but overlapping aspects of adjustment. Differences in the associations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment variables in childhood and adolescence were examined through the multi-group invariance testing using LISREL 8.80. Shyness and unsociability were both included in the same model to examine the unique contributions each made to the adjustment outcomes. This analysis involves comparing nested models with and without specific associations constrained equally across the groups (e.g., Jöreskog, 1971). A significant Chi-square value resulting from the constraint would indicate that the association is different across the groups.

Table 1.

Intercorrelations Among Variables.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11
1. Shyness		0.37***	0.02	–0.13**	0.41***	0.00	0.10*	0.05	0.02	0.12**	0.12*
2. Unsociability	0.29***		–0.13**	–0.30***	0.46***	0.00	0.29***	0.09*	–0.21***	0.29***	0.20***
3. Leadership	–0.03	–0.21***		0.22***	–0.11*	–0.18***	–0.09	–0.34***	0.48***	–0.22***	–0.19***
4. Peer Preference	–0.01	–0.39***	0.39***		–0.60***	–0.30***	–0.04	–0.32***	0.34***	–0.32***	–0.26***
5. Peer Victimization	0.16***	0.50***	–0.19***	–0.61***		0.21***	0.01	0.24***	–0.20***	0.26***	0.19***
6. Teacher-rated Externalizing Problems	–0.09*	0.15***	–0.30***	–0.36***	0.36***		–0.09	0.63***	–0.24***	0.13**	0.22***
7. Teacher-rated Internalizing Problems	0.12**	0.17***	–0.12**	–0.02	0.02	0.11**		0.05	–0.14**	0.26***	0.18***
8. Teacher-rated Learning Problems	–0.04	0.24***	–0.50***	–0.43***	0.33***	0.59***	0.27***		–0.55***	0.25***	0.34***
9. Academic Achievement	–0.02	–0.28***	0.63***	0.44***	–0.33***	–0.33***	–0.18***	–0.62***		–0.18***	–0.21***
10. Loneliness	0.05	0.34***	–0.27***	–0.35***	0.25***	0.23***	0.18***	0.36***	–0.30***		0.62***
11. Depression	0.05	0.25***	–0.23***	–0.26***	0.23***	0.24***	0.20***	0.32***	–0.30***	0.61***

Note. Results for childhood (N=564) and adolescence (N=462) are in the lower and upper diagonal.

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

Our analysis revealed a significant difference between the original unconstrained model and the constrained model with all the associations set equal across the groups, χ² (18) = 57.05, p < 0.001, indicating that there were significant age group differences in the overall associations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment variables. To detect sources of the age group differences, we conducted follow-up multi-group invariance tests constraining associations: (1) between shyness and all adjustment variables; and (2) between unsociability and all adjustment variables. The analyses revealed significant differences between the groups in the associations between shyness and adjustment variables, χ² (9) = 35.67, p < 0.001, and between unsociability and adjustment variables, χ² (9) = 37.05, p < 0.001. Further multi-group invariance tests were then conducted constraining each of the individual relations between shyness or unsociability and the adjustment variables.

As shown in Table 2, the associations between shyness and peer preference and peer victimization were significantly different for elementary school students and junior high school students. Shyness was negatively associated with peer preference in junior high school students, but not in elementary school students. Shyness was positively associated with peer victimization in both age groups, but the association was significantly stronger in junior high school students than in elementary school students. Shyness was positively associated with teacher-rated internalizing problems in both groups. In addition, shyness was positively associated with loneliness and depression in junior high school students, but not elementary school students, although groups did not statistically differ on the magnitude of the associations.

Table 2.

Effects of Shyness and Unsociability in Predicting Adjustment Variables.

	Childhood				Adolescence				χ2
Adjustment Variable	β	B(SE)	95% CI	t value	β	B(SE)	95%CI	t value	(df=1)
Leadership
Shyness	–0.08	–0.06(0.04)	[–0.15, 0.01]	–1.80	0.00	0.00(0.07)	[–0.09, 0.09]	–0.02	2.19
Unsociability	–0.19	–0.23(0.05)	[–0.26, –0.13]	–4.77***	–0.13	–0.12(0.04)	[–0.19, –0.07]	–2.83**	7.15**
Peer Preference
Shyness	–0.03	–0.05(0.06)	[–0.15, 0.08]	–0.78	–0.15	–0.26(0.08)	[–0.31, –0.01]	–3.24**	4.53*
Unsociability	–0.39	–0.77(0.08)	[–0.51, –0.26]	–9.96***	–0.30	–0.33(0.05)	[–0.47, –0.12]	–6.70***	21.74***
Peer Victimization
Shyness	0.20	0.16(0.03)	[0.07, 0.33]	4.77***	0.44	0.54(0.05)	[0.25, 0.62]	10.39***	35.83***
Unsociability	0.49	0.56(0.04)	[0.34, 0.64]	13.51***	0.46	0.36(0.03)	[0.28, 0.63]	11.11***	13.37***
Teacher-rated Externalizing Problems
Shyness	–0.01	–0.01(0.03)	[–0.08, 0.05]	–0.37	0.05	0.06(0.06)	[–0.07, 0.16]	1.03	0.38
Unsociability	0.13	0.14(0.05)	[0.02, 0.23]	3.14**	0.00	0.00(0.04)	[–0.09, 0.09]	–0.01	3.99*
Teacher-rated Internalizing Problems
Shyness	0.12	0.10(0.04)	[0.03, 0.22]	2.83**	0.09	0.13(0.07)	[0.00, 0.18]	1.98*	0.88
Unsociability	0.17	0.21(0.05)	[0.08, 0.26]	4.13***	0.29	0.27(0.04)	[0.17, 0.42]	6.59***	0.88
Teacher-rated Learning Problems
Shyness	0.02	0.01(0.03)	[–0.06, 0.09]	0.39	0.08	0.12(0.06)	[–0.02, 0.19]	1.84	1.30
Unsociability	0.22	0.27(0.05)	[0.12, 0.32]	5.66***	0.10	0.07(0.04)	[–0.02, 0.21]	1.64	4.76*
Academic Achievement
Shyness	–0.06	–0.05(0.04)	[–0.13, 0.02]	–1.34	0.00	0.00(0.07)	[–0.10, 0.10]	–0.03	2.19
Unsociability	–0.26	–0.32(0.05)	[–0.35, –0.17]	–6.43***	–0.21	–0.18(0.04)	[–0.31, –0.11]	–4.29***	3.99*
Loneliness
Shyness	0.07	0.05(0.03)	[–0.01, 0.16]	1.74	0.14	0.10(0.03)	[0.03, 0.25]	3.01**	3.26
Unsociability	0.34	0.28(0.03)	[0.23, 0.44]	8.41***	0.29	0.18(0.03)	[0.11, 0.47]	6.56***	4.88*
Depression
Shyness	0.07	0.02(0.01)	[–0.01, 0.15]	1.69	0.13	0.04(0.02)	[0.01, 0.24]	2.67**	2.65
Unsociability	0.24	0.09(0.01)	[0.13, 0.35]	5.91***	0.20	0.06(0.02)	[0.04, 0.36]	4.35***	0.90

Note. N=564 and 462 for childhood and adolescence, respectively. The effect of gender was controlled in the analyses.

*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.

The associations between unsociability and all the adjustment variables, except teacher-rated internalizing problems and depression, were significantly different between elementary and junior high school students. Unsociability was positively associated with teacher-rated externalizing problems and learning problems in elementary school students, but not in junior high school students. Unsociability was also negatively associated with leadership, peer preference, and academic achievement and positively associated with peer victimization and loneliness in both age groups, but the magnitude of the associations was significantly greater in elementary school students than in junior high school students. In addition, unsociability was positively associated with teacher-rated internalizing problems and depression in both groups.

Discussion

The results of the present study first showed that shyness and unsociability were generally related to adjustment problems in children and adolescents. The results suggest that the two main forms of social withdrawal are maladaptive in the contemporary Chinese society. However, consistent with our main hypotheses, the different patterns of the relations also emerged in middle childhood and early adolescence; whereas shyness tended to be associated with social and psychological problems more strongly in adolescence, unsociability was associated with adjustment problems in various domains more evidently and consistently across domains in childhood.

Shyness, Unsociability, and Adjustment in Chinese Children and Adolescents

The results showed that although shyness in childhood was positively associated with peer victimization and teacher-rated internalizing problems, it was not significantly associated with other variables such as leadership, peer preference, academic achievement, or depression. The results seem to suggest that unlike their counterparts in today’s urban regions (e.g., Chen et al., 2005), shy children in suburban regions might not experience pervasive school or psychological problems. However, shyness was associated with more extensive social and psychological problems in adolescents. The significantly stronger association between shyness and peer victimization in adolescents than in children indicated that shy adolescents were more likely than their younger counterparts to be the target of victimization by others. Moreover, relative to non-shy adolescents, shy adolescents had lower peer preference and reported higher loneliness and depression. The results suggested that shyness was more maladaptive in social and psychological adjustment in adolescence than in childhood.

Unsociable adolescents also differed from their younger counterparts in adjustment, but in an opposite manner. To begin with, although unsociability was consistently associated with social, school, and psychological problems in both children and adolescents, the magnitudes of the associations were significantly lower in adolescence than in childhood. Moreover, unsociability was associated with teacher-rated externalizing problems and learning problems in childhood, but not in early adolescence. Thus, relative to their younger counterparts, unsociable adolescents appeared to experience less negative peer relationships, display fewer school problems, and be less vulnerable to feelings of loneliness.

The different patterns of the relations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment in the two age groups may be related to increased autonomy in early adolescence. The growth in independent judgment and decision-making may undermine the influence of adult standards and allow for greater flexibility in adolescents to choose their own behavioral styles including “preference to be alone” (Collins & Steinberg, 2006; Li et al., 2007). At the same time, adolescents may show less negative attitudes toward others who display unsociable behaviors. In addition, adolescents are likely to be highly attentive to the emerging social and cultural values such as assertiveness and individuality (e.g., Blakemore & Mills, 2014). With the development of more sophisticated social-cognitive abilities, adolescents may also learn various values including individualistic values through social interactions (Chen et al., 2012). The distinct social and personal experiences of adolescents may play a significant role in determining their attitudes, behaviors, and adjustment, as indicated in the relations of shyness and unsociability with socioemotional and school problems.

We believe that the results of the present study need to be understood in the context of suburban regions in China. Children and adolescents may have experienced relatively consistent socialization practices that are guided mainly by traditional values in remote rural regions but by more Western self-oriented values in major cities (e.g., Fuligni & Zhang, 2004). In the suburban context that is characterized by mixed social and cultural standards and belief systems (e.g., Mao, 2009), whereas children may be socialized with a more traditional group-oriented and adult-directed approach in the family and school, adolescents may be exposed and receptive to more diverse views and lifestyles, which eventually affect the functional meanings of shyness and unsociability in their adjustment.

Limitations and Future Directions

Several limitations of the present study should be noted. First, we focused on relations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment without tapping into the processes in the relations. The processes likely involve situational and personal factors at multiple levels, such as socio-ecological circumstances, cultural norms, school practices, parental socialization practices, and peer group activities (e.g., Chen, 2010). For example, based on the literature (e.g., Chen et al., 2012; Li et al., 2007), we argued that different relations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment in childhood and adolescence might be related to macro-level contexts such as values of autonomy and assertiveness. However, we did not measure these constructs in the study. Future research should draw on the literature on the study of cultural values and examine how they play a role in shaping individual attitudes and behaviors.

Second, the data in this study were correlational and cross-sectional, thereby precluding any inferences about causality. Researchers should conduct longitudinal research, which may help clarify directionality in the associations. Relatedly, although the multi-group invariance tests (i.e., χ² values) showed significant differences on some of the relations in childhood and adolescence, the effect sizes of the differences were mostly modest, as indicated in the overlapping confidence intervals. Thus, any conclusions should be made with caution until the results are replicated in other studies in the future.

Finally, we conducted this study in a contemporary Chinese context. Similar patterns of the relations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment problems may exist in other societies, such as North America, where autonomy is more emphasized and encouraged in adolescence than in childhood (e.g., Collins & Steinberg, 2006). Thus, it will be interesting to investigate the relations in different societies. At the same time, given the distinct tradition of each society, it will also be important to take specific social and cultural circumstances into account in the study of children’s and adolescents’ social behaviors.

Despite the limitations, the present study revealed similar as well as different patterns of the relations of shyness and unsociability with adjustment problems in middle childhood and early adolescence. The study provided valuable information about the nature of the two main forms of social withdrawal in two important developmental periods in a Chinese context.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the children and teachers for their participation.

Funding

The research and preparation of the paper were supported by grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, the National Science Foundation (grant number #BCS-1225620), and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant number 31300855).

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