Examination of digital citizenship,online information searching strategy and information literacy depending on changing state of experience in using digital technologies during COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract

As educational processes are adapted to the online environment due to COVID-19 pandemic, digital citizenship and online information searching strategies came into prominence. In this context, the aim of this study is the examination of digital citizenship awareness, online information searching strategies and differentiation of the level of information literacy depending on changing state of experience in using digital technologies before and during COVID-19 pandemic. Also, it is aimed to examine the presence of relations between variables of the research. The study was conducted with the participation of 255 university students. Analyses were performed using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). According to the results of the study, during COVID-19 pandemic, there was an increase in digital citizenship awareness of students who spend more time in social media and the ones who improved digital technology usage skills developed online information searching strategies. According to the model analysed, online information searching strategies and information literacy have an effect on digital citizenship while online information searching strategies have an effect on information literacy. The results of the study showed that the students with higher level of information literacy and online information searching strategies may help them develop digital citizenship awareness.

Keywords

Daily social media usage duration digital citizenship digital technology usage skills information literacy online information searching strategy

1. Introduction

Being an information society has recently become a prominent concept with COVID-19 pandemic. Digital citizenship and developing knowledge and skills for information literacy and online information searching strategies has become as important as basic literacy. Term of digital citizenship creates a new type of citizenship. With the use of the Internet and computer in the recent years in particular and the enhancement of Internet access opportunities, searching, attaining, analysing and sharing information became important and easy [1]. There is an increase in sharing information due to distance learning during COVID-19 pandemic, the use of online environment becomes prevalent, people are more actively involved in the society and educational opportunities are offered in every division of life. Besides, financial, commercial and personal practices have been adapted to online environment; people began to take responsibility for digital citizenship. In education world, these skills gained more importance as online and distance learning became compulsory. Students are supposed to have knowledge and skill for becoming a digital citizen such as being information literate, using online environments actively and efficiently, and having information searching strategies. Digital citizenship is a global concept defining how a person is supposed to act in an online environment [2]. Studies indicating that having these skills contribute to academic achievement [3,4] support these expectations. The simplest way to access information is searching in online environments, that is, in the Internet. Student generation of our day takes action in an environment that offers different types of information with an easy access and content-rich information [5]. However, online information search and evaluation of this information after attaining it is a complex process, including multi-dimensional and metacognitive strategies [6]. This complex process brings along recognising many strategies that are needed to be developed [5]. Students are required to know a series of strategies such as how to surf in the Internet for searching information and how to find and evaluate this information critically [7] and how to use technology for this objective [8]. These strategies are supported with skills such as digital literacy and information literacy [9]; thus, it will open a road for becoming a digital citizen.

As a place for ensuring individual’s participation in online environments more frequently, creating and sharing contents, the use of social media application becomes widespread in recent years [10]. Global appearance of digital media becomes widespread in recent times with social change and COVID-19 pandemic and the attention is focused on digital citizenship. It is pointed out that the use of social media supports many skills such as information literacy and digital citizenship. The people who have higher level of digital literacy and information literacy are more active in their social relations, search the necessary information more easily, understand and share the related information [11]. Xu et al. [12] found a significant positive correlation between social media competency level and digital citizenship. According to Gleason and von Gillern [13], digital citizenship can be taught through a curriculum supported with social media. With this aspect, it can be said that there is a need for a study to examine whether the use of social media has an effect on digital citizenship, information literacy and online information searching strategies. Similarly, whether technology usage skills have an impact on this process may also be examined. According to the literature, information literacy or digital citizenship is not synonym for digital technology usage skills [14,15] but substantially correlated. Today, people are required to learn new skills for an effective communication in social world [16 –18]. Developing digital media usage skills will enhance information literacy and digital citizenship [15].

The purpose of the research is examining digital citizenship awareness, online information searching strategies and differentiation of the level of information literacy depending on changing state of experience in using digital technologies before and during COVID-19 pandemic. Also, it aims to examine the presence of relation between variables of the research.

2. Conceptual framework and literature review

2.1. Digital citizenship

As a result of widespread use of information and communication technologies (ICTs) in digital era, the concept of digital citizenship emerged. Providing students with skills and awareness for becoming a digital citizen has gained importance. As students spend most of their time with digital technologies and social media, digital citizenship and awareness on this matter become crucial [19,20], because students may encounter cyberbullying, Internet addiction and toxic communication that threaten them in digital world [13,21,22]. For this reason, raising a conscious generation for safe use of the Internet is important. Digital citizenship involves these approaches, as well. The concept of citizenship is not limited with its traditional association but also appears under the titles of cyber citizenship, ethics, online and network citizenship or Internet citizenship [23]. Digital citizenship has a variety of definitions. Ribble et al. [24] and Ribble [25] defined digital citizenship as behavioural norms relating to the use of technology. Jones and Mitchell [26] defined it as online respectful behaviour, while Choi et al. [27] addressed to the concept from the perspective of democratic citizenship in the Internet era. According to the Framework of Digital Competences for Citizenship defined by the European Union [28], being digitally knowledgeable is defined as 21 competencies possessed in 5 basic areas (information and data literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, safety and problem solving). These competencies are important for achieving goals related to work, employability, learning, leisure and participation in society. Digital citizens should be able to use digital technologies in a critical, collaborative, creative and safe way by producing solutions to their problems. Digital citizens are expected to have the competencies to realise a series of situations such as researching the information they need, solving digital problems, storing information, protecting their digital identities and developing digital content and are expected to be aware of these competencies.

2.2. Online information searching strategies

Students spend time in online environments more than ever during COVID-19 pandemic. Besides courses, social circles and communication, every part of their life goes on in online environment. With integration of information technologies to education, searching information online in all contents has become a common learning activity in the university education [6]. With promotion and implementation of online learning in the schools and educational environments, students increasingly engage in searching information on the Internet [29]. However, students who are not familiar with online environment don’t know what to do when searching information in the Internet or where they are or where to go; it may seem difficult and complex for them to search for information in an open-ended environment like the Internet [30]. Searching information in online environment and processing this information are complex process that includes multi-dimensional and metacognitive strategies [31,32]. For these reasons, students are supposed to know online information searching strategies for preparing schoolwork or projects more efficiently in this period during which spending more time in online environment is common due to COVID-19 pandemic.

2. 3. Information literacy

Information literacy is an important step for becoming an information society. In an information society that places emphasis on access to information and critical evaluation of this information, information literacy is as important as basic reading and writing skills [3]. Julien and Barker [3] defined the term ‘information literacy’ as the set of skills required to identify information sources, access information, evaluate it, and use it effectively, efficiently and ethically. Information literate students are the individuals who learned how to learn. Recently, rapid increase in the use of Internet for education in COVID-19 pandemic and the need to know how to respond to a stack of information emphasised the importance of information literacy once more [33].

2. 4. Literature review and structural relations

Digital literacy is defined as development of modern ICT usage skills. Within this context, it can be inferred that digital technologies usage skills are associated with information literacy and thus digital citizenship. Usage experience of social media, that is, new face of digital world, is supposed to be related to this process. According to Xu et al. [12], as social media experiences and self-sufficiency of university students increase, the level of their digital citizenship increases. As a result of a study conducted by Choi et al. [34], they found that the use of social media for educational activities affects digital citizenship perception of teachers to a considerable extent. According to Krutka and Carpenter [35], using social media applications contributes to digital citizenship skills and teaching digital citizenship brings along teaching social media. Gleason and von Gillern [13] stated that the use of social media in formal and informal learning environments supports development of digital citizenship for students.

Choi [36] underlined those skills like information literacy and the use of digital technology are crucial at the present day and citizenship in online environments, being on top of all fields of our life, has got a new form as digital citizenship of today known as the Internet era. Similarly, Mossberger [37] emphasises that the concepts of technology literacy and information literacy are significant for digital citizenship at the information age. In the study conducted by Coklar and Tatli [1], they stated that there is a positive, significant and medium level correlation between digital citizenship levels of teachers and information literacy. They also pointed out that as teachers’ literacy level increases, the level of digital citizenship increases. According to Atoy et al. [5], digital literacy and information literacy have become prerequisite for digital citizenship.

Searching information on the Internet has become a common learning activity during educational process. A medium-level positive correlation was found between online information searching strategies and digital communication, literacy [38]. Çoklar et al. [39] examined the role of digital citizenship in online information searching strategies. The researchers found that digital communication and literacy as a sub-dimension of digital citizenship are significant indicators of online information search and there is a high level of correlation between online information searching strategies and information literacy. Model results of study conducted by Atoy et al. [5], revealed a direct and positive correlation between digital literacy and online information search strategy of students. Also, they suggested out that digital literacy is one of the most significant factors for mediating and contributing in student’s strategy for searching good information.

When the literature is examined, there are significant positive correlations among online information searching strategy, information literacy and digital citizenship. It is important to examine how these relations changed before and during COVID-19 pandemic in terms of the use of social media and digital technology usage skill.

2.5. Significance of the research

COVID-19, along with a major global health crisis, caused large-scale behavioural changes in societies socially, educationally, culturally, psychologically and economically. This process of change also includes a major technological change that affects all demographic segments of humanity in the personal, educational and professional fields. In this context, the importance of students’ multi-dimensional use of digital technologies in education has become evident. This situation requires students to rethink and design all their past technology use competencies, habits and structures. On the contrary, it is considered essential to understand the relationships among variables such as digital citizenship, technology competencies, experience, information sharing [40], information literacy and online information searching strategies, in order to overcome challenges that may be encountered in the changeable, uncertain and rapidly developing world with the COVID-19 pandemic. It is possible to develop the digital competencies that will be needed according to the determined relations with the arrangements to be made in the field of education [41]. This information can guide the development of training programmes. However, there was very limited research in the literature focusing on these relationships and their change during the COVID-19 process. Therefore, this study was structured to contribute to the existing literature.

When all education levels were reviewed, it was seen that there are concerns in the literature, especially in terms of university students’ use of digital technologies and their social media use competencies [12,42]. Studies in the literature highlight the problematic use of technology by university students, cyberbullying [41], information seeking and online disclosure of sensitive information, and digital literacy [43] that negatively affect academic performance [44]. It suggests the necessity of addressing issues such as social media and the use of digital technologies in higher education. On the contrary, according to the Turkish Statistical Institute [45], university students are in the age group that uses social media and the Internet most actively. Similar findings were obtained by the Pew Research Center [46]. This situation increases the importance of the research.

In information societies, the increasing penetration of digital technologies with new environments with the COVID-19 process required the development of digital competencies and behaviours. The variables of digital citizenship, information literacy and information searching strategies provided a comprehensive framework for developing and guiding such competencies and behaviours. It can be stated that it is very important to explore this issue among university students in order to ensure the development of digital citizenship, information literacy and information searching strategies through education [47]. This study contributes to the field of information science with new information by examining the change of digital citizenship awareness, information literacy and online information search strategies depending on the change in technology usage before and during COVID-19. In addition, this study investigates how the change in the awareness of purposeful social media use and digital technology use competencies of individuals, especially in the COVID-19 period, sheds light on the change in becoming a digital citizen and information literate and developing strategies for information searching.

3. Methods

3.1. Research model

The aim of this study is the questioning of presence of correlation among students’ digital citizenship levels, information searching strategies and information literacy and examining digital citizenship awareness, online information searching strategies and differentiation of the level of information literacy depending on changing state of experience in using digital technologies before and during COVID-19 pandemic. This study is a relational screening model as it aims to reveal correlations. Relational screening model aims to determine whether there is a difference between two or more variables and levels of the difference if any [48]. This study includes processes like determination of problem status, designation of sample group, collection and analysis of data and interpretation of the results. Correlation between variables addressed in this study is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Research model and hypotheses.

Hypotheses defined within the context of this study are as follows:

H1. There is a positive correlation between university students’ online information searching strategy and information literacy.

H2. There is a positive correlation between university students’ online information searching strategy and digital citizenship awareness.

H3. There is a positive correlation between students’ online information literacy and digital citizenship awareness.

3.2. Participants

This research was conducted with participation of 255 university students who are in active status since March 2019. The age of the participants is between 17 and 22. 65.9% of the participants are female while 34.1% of the participants are male.

3.3. Data collection tools

Personal Information Form. This form was created for obtaining main demographical data by the researchers and collection of data on the use of technology.

Digital Citizenship Scale. Developed by Choi et al. [27], this scale was adapted to Turkish language by Erdem and Koçyiğit [49]. A 7-point Likert-type scale consists of (1 = Strongly Disagree, …, 7 = Strongly Agree) five factors (Internet political activism, technical skills, local/global awareness, critical perspective, networking agency).

Online Information Searching Strategy Inventory. This scale was developed by Tsai [29] and adapted to Turkish language by Aşkar and Mazman [50]. A 6-point Likert-type scale consists of (1 = ‘very unsatisfied’ to 6 = ‘very satisfied’) seven factors (disorientation, evaluation, purposeful thinking, select main ideas, trial & error, control and problem).

Information Literacy Scale. This scale was developed by Adigüzel [51]. The scale is used for evaluating approaches for obtaining information and reconstructing the information. This scale consists of four factors (‘Defining Information Needs’, ‘Access to Information’, ‘Use of Information’ and ‘Ethical and Legal Settings in Use of Information’). The scale is 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = ‘Always’, 2 = ‘Very often’, 3 = ‘Sometimes’, 4 = ‘Rarely’, 5 = ‘Never’).

3.4. Data analysis

Data were collected from social media users through online environment. Study was conducted on a volunteer basis. It was tested which one of parametric or nonparametric test may be used for data collected in the study. It was observed whether data collected for this meet the assumption of parametric tests (data must be intermittent or proportional, data must correlate normal distribution and group variances must be equal) and assumptions were tested separately. Kolmogorov–Smirnov normality test, measures of central tendency and coefficient of skewness and kurtosis values were calculated for determining whether data were normally distributed or not. It was decided to use parametric tests as assumptions were met.

As dependent variable (digital citizenship awareness, online information searching strategy and information literacy) was used more than one in the study, it was decided to use multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) for the analysis of data. It was tested to determine whether variance and covariance matrices of points of dependent variable, as one of the assumptions of MANOVA, are homogeneous on data, normality and linearity of which were tested. It was assumed that covariances were equal for equality of group variances and potential binary combinations of dependent variables for each one of dependent variables. Homogeneity of covariance matrices was examined through Box Test. In Box Test, having higher value of 0.05 for p is enough for meeting precondition for equality on covariances [52]. Test results showed that covariance matrices were homogeneous (p > 0.05). Homogeneity of error variances was examined through Levene test. When Levene test results were analysed, it was found that p value was higher than 0.05 and assumption was met.

According to assumed research model in this study, partial least squares [53,54] structural equation modelling was used. SmartPLS 3.0 [55] programme was used for the analysis of structural model. Psychometric properties of the model measured for internal consistency, convergent validity and discriminant validity, the level of relationship between variables of structural model and significance level were evaluated in the research model. When composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha reliability value is 0.7 and above, internal consistency of data is deemed to have been ensured [56]. All reliability values for the model were measured above generally accepted value (0.70). Average variance extracted value is above 0.50 [57].

4. Findings

4.1. Demographics, personal information and correlations

Demographics, personal information and correlation values are presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1.

Demographics and personal information.

Variables	f	%
Gender
Female	168	65.9
Male	87	34.1
Age
17–22	241	94.5
23 and above	14	5.5
Grade point average M = 71.75, SD = 28.43
Social media use (daily), h
<1	11	4.3
1–3	111	43.5
4–6	104	40.8
7–9	22	8.6
≥10	7	2.7
Daily frequency checking social media M = 13.11, SD = 9.84
Most frequently used social network
Instagram	152	59.6
Facebook	1	0.4
Twitter	31	12.2
Pinterest	3	1.2
Youtube	56	22.0
Others^a	12	4.7
Social media use experience, years
<1	4	1.6
1–2	8	3.1
3–4	40	15.7
>5	203	79.6
Digital technology skills
Low	7	2.7
Medium	145	56.9
High	103	40.4
Divergence in skills to use digital technologies before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
It remained the same or decreased compared to COVID-19 and before	83	32.6
It has increased compared to COVID-19 and before	172	67.5
Divergence in social media usage time before and during the COVID-19 pandemic
It remained the same or decreased compared to COVID-19 and before	80	31.4
It has increased compared to COVID-19 and before	175	68.6

Tumblr, WhatsApp, Discord, Pinterest, YouTube, Telegram.

Table 2.

Correlations.

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1. Social media use (daily)–hours	1
2. Daily frequency checking social media	0.095	1
3. Social media use experience	0.169*	–0.018	1
4. Digital technology skills	0.041	–0.048	0.138*	1
5. Divergence in skills to use digital technologies before and during the COVID-19 pandemic	0.071	–0.207*	–0.075	–0.051	1
6. Divergence in social media usagetime before and during the COVID-19 pandemic	0.225*	–0.014	–0.062	0.035	0.293*	1
7. Digital citizenship	0.141*	–0.006	0.150*	0.087	0.098	0.122	1
8. Information literacy	0.015	–0.184	–0.044	0.043	0.136	0.019	0.292	1
9. Online information searching strategy	–0.048	–0.065	–0.042	0.243*	0.124*	–0.091	0.289*	0.368*	1

Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).

According to Table 1, the age of the participants is between 17 and 22. 65.9% of the participants are female while 34.1% of the participants are male. Grade point average of the participants is 71.75 out of 100.

It was found that 84.3% of the participants use social media for about 1–6 h daily. Daily frequency checking social media is about 13 times. It was seen that the most frequently used social network is Instagram with a percentage of 59.6. 79.6% of the participants stated that they use social media for more than 5 years. Many of the participants defined their skills for the use of digital technology as medium or high level (97.3%).

When a comparison was made between the periods before and during COVID-19 pandemic, 67.5% of the participants stated that digital technology usage skills increased while 68.6% of the participants reported that daily time spent in social media increased.

According to the data presented in Table 2, the correlation coefficients between variables vary between −0.006 and 0.368. Online information searching strategy has the highest correlation with the information literacy variable (r = 0.368, p < 0.05) and has the lowest correlation with the between digital citizenship and daily frequency checking social media variables (r =−0.006; p > 0.05). Social media use (daily)-hours variable showed significant correlation with social media use experience (r = 0.169; p < 0.05), divergence in social media usage time before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (r = 0.225; p < 0.05) and digital citizenship (r = 0.141; p < 0.05). Daily frequency checking social media variable showed significant correlation with divergence in skills to use digital technologies before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (r =−0.207; p < 0.05). Social media use experience showed significant correlation with digital technology skills (r = 0.138; p < 0.05) and digital citizenship (r = 0.150; p < 0.05). Digital technology skills showed significant correlation with online information searching strategy (r = 0.243; p < 0.05). Divergence in skills to use digital technologies before and during the COVID-19 pandemic showed significant correlation with divergence in social media usage time before and during the COVID-19 pandemic (r = 0.293; p < 0.05) and online information searching strategy (r = 0.124; p < 0.05). Digital citizenship showed significant correlation with online information searching strategy (r = 0.289; p < 0.05).

4.2. Structural equation model

Convergent validity was used for assessment of compatibility of measurement model. Findings on convergent validity are shown in Table 3.

Table 3.

The measurement model.

Construct	Mean	Standarddeviation	Factor loading	Cronbach’s alpha	Rho_A	Composite reliability	Average variance extracted
Digital citizenship	5.165–6.255	1.347–1.842	0.721–0.901	0.915	0.920	0.935	0.707
Information literacy	3.906–4.386	0.876–1.006	0.701–0.839	0.967	0.969	0.970	0.606
Online information searching strategy	4.390–4.829	1.483–1.517	0.769–0. 884	0.958	0.960	0.963	0.666

Convergent validity was ensured according to Table 3. As it is seen in Table 3, all factors proved reliability above 0.7 and 0.5. For this reason, reliability of all factors was ensured.

As it is shown in Table 4, heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) values in the measurement model structure were found below 0.90 (Hair et al., 2017).

Table 4.

Heterotrait–monotrait ratio (HTMT) results.

	1	2
Digital citizenship
Information literacy	0.375
Online information searching strategy	0.429	0.404

All path coefficients of inner model were analysed with ‘bootstrapping procedure of 500 samples’ and findings are shown in Table 5 .

Table 5.

Structural model results.

Hypothesis	Path	Path coefficient	t-value	p	Accept/reject
H1	Online information searching strategy→Information literacy	0.395	6.121	0.000	Accept
H2	Online information searching strategy→Digital citizenship	0.313	3.914	0.000	Accept
H3	Information literacy→Digital citizenship	0.234	3.417	0.001	Accept

In this study, three hypotheses were asserted, underlying how digital citizenship awareness of university students is affected by variables of online information searching strategies and information literacy and multi-dimensional effects of these variables. Research hypotheses highlighted that the related variables affect significant one another and digital citizenship awareness positively and statistically. According to Table 5, it was revealed that H1, H2 and H3 hypotheses were accepted (tH1 = 6.121; tH2 = 3.914; tH3 = 3.417). According to the model, it is possible to say that online information searching strategies and information literacy have an impact on digital citizenship awareness behaviour. On the contrary, it is revealed that online information searching strategies have an impact on information literacy.

4. 3. Findings on change of digital technology usage skills before and during COVID-19 pandemic

Descriptive statistics on change of digital technology usage skills before and during COVID-19 pandemic are represented in Table 6. Levene test results for equality of group variances before analysis were not found significant for all scales (p > 0.001). In other words, variances of different experience groups for scales were found equal. This shows that preconditions for variance analysis were met. Test results (Box’s M = 9.060, p > 0.01) of equality of covariance matrices of groups relating to dependent variables reveal that covariance matrices are equal.

Table 6.

Descriptive findings related to the divergence in digital technology usage skills with the COVID-19 pandemic.

Divergence in skills to use digital technologies before and during the COVID-19 pandemic	Digital citizenship awareness	Online information searching strategies	Information literacy levels
	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)
It remained the same or decreased compared to COVID-19 and before	68.3951 (16.16917)	98.2469 (22.24046)	116.1728 (20.87151)
It has increased compared to COVID-19 and before	72.2303 (15.39030)	105.4788 (19.77883)	121.3273 (19.89735)

When descriptive statistics in Table 6 are examined, digital citizenship awareness levels (M = 68.3951; SD = 16.17) of the users who stated that their usage skills of digital technologies remained the same or decreased in compliance with the period before COVID-19 pandemic appear to be lower than the group who stated that their usage skills of digital technologies improved (M = 72.2303; SD = 15.39). Online information searching strategies and information literacy levels of the group with an increasing usage skill of digital technology during pandemic is higher than the other group.

According to MANOVA analysis conducted for examining whether there is significant difference between change categories of digital technology usage skills, it was concluded that average points of students’ digital citizenship awareness, online information searching strategies and information literacy level (Wilk’s Lambda(V) = 0.965, F = 2.953, p < 0.05) variables varied with each other significantly. In the analysis carried out according to change category of students’ digital technology usage skills during pandemic, the effect size value is (η² = 0.033). This value reveals that variable of change in digital technology usage skills has a lower impact on dependent variables.

As a result of MANOVA analysis, no significant difference exists for digital citizenship awareness (p = 0.072) and information literacy levels (p = 0.062) according to decrease/steadiness or increase categories of digital technology usage skills of university student in pandemic, while there is a significant difference in terms of online information searching strategies (p = 0.010). According to Table 6, it can be inferred that the increase in digital technology usage skills during COVID-19 pandemic contributed to improvement of digital citizenship awareness, information literacy levels and online information search strategy of students. However, it is seen that this contribution is significant for only online information searching strategies and for the benefit of group that declared increase in digital technology usage skills with the outbreak of pandemic.

4.4. The findings on change of duration of social media usage before and during COVID-19 pandemic

Descriptive statistics on change of duration of social media usage before and during COVID-19 pandemic are presented in Table 7. Levene test results for equality of group variances before the analysis were not found significant for all scales (p > 0.001). In other words, variances of different groups for scales were found equal. This shows that preconditions for variance analysis were met. According to test results of equality of covariance matrices of groups for dependent variables (Box’s M = 7.588, p > 0.01), covariance matrices were equal.

Table 7.

Descriptive findings related to the divergence in social media usage time with the COVID-19 pandemic.

Divergence in social media usage time before and during the COVID-19 pandemic	Digital citizenship awareness	Online information searching strategies	Information literacy levels
	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)	Mean (SD)
It remained the same or decreased compared to COVID-19 and before	68.1974 (15.58035)	106.5132 (19.11264)	118.7105 (22.18096)
It has increased compared to COVID-19 and before	72.2059 (15.67227)	101.5706 (21.46824)	120.0412 (19.49491)

When descriptive statistics in Table 7 are examined, digital citizenship awareness levels (M = 68.1974; SD = 15.58) of the users who stated their duration of social media usage remained the same or decreased in compliance with the period before COVID-19 pandemic appear to be lower than the group who stated that duration of social media usage improved (M = 72.2059; SD = 15.67). Online information searching strategies and information literacy levels of the group with an increasing duration of social media usage during pandemic is lower than the other group but their information literacy levels are higher when compared to other group.

According to MANOVA analysis conducted for examining whether there is significant difference between change categories of duration of social media usage, it was concluded that average points of students’ digital citizenship awareness, online information searching strategies and information literacy level (Wilk’s Lambda(V) = 0.965, F = 2.935, p < 0.05) variables varied with each other significantly. In the analysis carried out according to change category of university students’ duration of social media usage during pandemic, the effect size value is (η² = 0.034). This value reveals that variable of change in duration of social media usage has a lower impact on dependent variables.

As a result of MANOVA analysis, while significant difference exists for digital citizenship awareness (p = 0.045), no significant difference exists for information literacy levels (p = 0.636) and for online information searching strategy (p = 0.086) according to change categories of duration of social media usage during COVID-19 pandemic. According to Table 7, the increase of duration of social media usage during COVID-19 contributed to improvement of digital citizenship awareness, information literacy levels but negatively influenced improvement of online information searching strategy. However, it is seen that this contribution is significant for only digital citizenship awareness variable and for the benefit of group that declared increase in duration of social media usage with the outbreak of pandemic.

5. Discussion, conclusion, limitation and recommendations

In this section, results and discussions were addressed based on the findings obtained by the examination of differentiation of digital citizenship awareness, online information searching strategies and information literacy levels depending on change status of digital technology usage experience before and during COVID-19 pandemic. Findings of the study are summarised in Figure 2.

Figure 2.

The research results.

Digital citizenship is multi-dimensional, complex and global concept and awareness needs to be improved [34,36]. Digital citizenship refers to awareness as well as the ability to criticise what is happening in general in the process of actively participating in social, professional and civil life [58]. The life that comes with COVID-19 requires an awareness that reveals the importance of being a digital citizen. Because creating safe communities in the online world, being aware of the community and responsibilities while using social networking sites is one of the important steps of being a digital citizen. According to Choi [36], raising awareness about the importance of digital citizenship should be the primary goal of education. Twenty-first-century skills such as digital citizenship awareness, information literacy and online information searching strategies are concepts that are frequently encountered in the new digital world and are interrelated. In this study, a significant relationship was found between online information searching strategies, digital citizenship and information literacy, which supports these relationships. For all these reasons, education systems should be aware of the need to be prepared for these concepts and the structure between them. This awareness should be provided for every stakeholder, including educators, administration, family and students. When the correlation results of this study were examined, it was seen that there was a significant relationship between online information search strategies and digital technology skills. Similarly, it was observed that there is a significant relationship between digital citizenship and daily social media usage time and social media user experience. The reason for this relationship can be understood when the perspective [59] on using social media for social benefit was developed. According to Gleason and von Gillern [13], social networking technologies such as Instagram and Twitter support new forms of citizenship that are linked to changing literacy concepts and engage more participants. According to the researchers, this new digital citizenship model needs to be developed with the opportunities provided by social media.

Especially, with the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic, educational processes were adapted to online environments and it gained more importance than before. Students spend more time in digital environments and in the Internet when compared before and it is necessary to ensure digital awareness for being secure against harmful effects of the Internet and for being conscious of and practicing citizenship responsibilities. Even if the use of technology is important, it is stated that being aware of how to use technology safely and with a sense of responsibility is far more important [24]. This awareness reflects digital citizenship completely. It is pointed out that the students of 21st century need to learn new skills for supporting them to be digital citizens in a global world [60]. Within this context, clarion calls are given for educators to support digital citizenship skills of students of 21st century in the Digital Age [61]. When the results of this study were examined, it was observed that online information searching strategies and information literacy variables have an impact on digital citizenship awareness behaviour regarding structural model. On the contrary, online information searching strategies influence information literacy. Literacy skills are essential for being a digital citizen in many aspects. Digital citizens need to be equipped with basic Internet skills, including search of new information in online environments [36]. Today, accessing important source of information in the process of information structuring, criticising, evaluating and helping to develop it has become very important regarding improvement of online social groups. The studies arguing education, citizenship and digital world with the outbreak of COVID-19 can be observed in the literature. It is emphasised that critical literacy implementations need to be analysed more extensively like information literacy which is necessary for digital citizenship in the world after COVID-19 pandemic. Buchholz et al. [62] argued digital citizenship concept within the context of changing educational practices with the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic and stated that teachers should improve digital literacy and digital citizenship in the classroom. Literacy skills are not enough for becoming digital citizen. Moreover, it is important for students to know not only how to read and write in online environments but also how to do it as active, responsible and critical citizens. In this study, significant relationship between these two concepts supports this importance.

According to the findings of this study, no significant difference exists for digital citizenship awareness and information literacy levels according to decrease/steadiness categories of digital technology usage skills of university student in pandemic, while there is a significant difference in terms of online information searching strategies. In addition to this finding, it is observed that the increase in digital technology usage skills during COVID-19 pandemic contributed to improvement of digital citizenship awareness, information literacy levels and online information search strategy of students. However, it is seen that this contribution is significant for only digital citizenship awareness variable and for the benefit of group that improved digital technology usage skills with the outbreak of pandemic. In other words, students who improved digital technology usage skills during COVID-19 pandemic also developed online information searching strategies. It is important to acquire digital citizenship skills for maintaining a healthy connection with technology [38]. Rising generation is required to be active and conscious for development of countries. Conscious individuals know what and how to search in online environments and accept as a reliable source [63] and have knowledge of accessing and using the information. Developing students’ digital technology usage skills is critical within this context. Students who search information in the Internet without using any analysis and synthesis strategy face off many dangers. Online information searching strategies are important factors for effective use of digital environments. Within this context, it is necessary to acquire digital citizenship skills at an early age for technology consciousness and correct use of it [28]. This necessity has become more significant due to increasing use of technology and the Internet with COVID-19 pandemic.

Significant difference exists for digital citizenship awareness according to change categories of media usage duration during COVID-19 pandemic; no significant difference exists for information literacy levels and online information searching strategies. According to this finding, the increase of media usage duration during COVID-19 contributed to improvement of digital citizenship awareness, information literacy levels but negatively influenced improvement of online information searching strategies. However, it is seen that this contribution is significant for only digital citizenship awareness variable and for the benefit of group that declared increase in duration of social media usage with outbreak of pandemic. Increasing use of technology and social media with COVID-19 pandemic led to an increase in the use of social media [64]. It is possible to say that this increase is for the benefit of digital citizenship awareness because studies conducted show that the use of social networks have a positive impact on digital citizenship [12,13,35]. According to Choi et al. [34], the use of social networks has an effect on information literacy. Thus, this shows that active use of social networks is related to being critical, engaged and reformer digital citizen. Instagram, which is one of the most frequently used social media tools, came to the fore in the findings of this study. In this respect, it can be considered that using Instagram contributes to awareness about digital citizenship.

This study is considered important as it analyses digital citizenship awareness, information literacy and online information searching strategies of university students before and during COVID-19 pandemic in a multi-dimensional perspective. This study has a potential to contribute to the literature due to the examination of relative structure of research variables before and during COVID-19 pandemic in terms of revealing structural relation between variables, technology usage skills and the use of social media. Results obtained from this study contributed to the literature by supporting expansion of nomological network theoretically. This study is ultimately an indicator that digital citizenship awareness is associated with information literacy and online information searching strategy. This study also shows that purposeful use of social media awareness and digital technology usage competency of individuals especially during COVID-19 pandemic may serve as a driving force for raising digital citizens.

This study has some limitations. Primarily, method used in this study is cross sectional. On the contrary, variables of information literacy, digital citizenship awareness and online information search strategy may lead to change in duration of digital technology usage and the related skills. For this reason, longitudinal data are required for analysing direction of the suggested effects in this study. In addition to this, as it is survey-based design, data rests upon self-report. Thus, data involves tendency for socially desirable answers. In addition, it is important to keep in mind the concept of digital divide in the sampling process in future studies related to this study. Especially in countries or regions where ICT penetration is low, limitations on access to ICT tools and literacy will make it difficult to perceive digital citizenship and own qualifications. Therefore, in future studies, it can be said that the reproducibility of the research model has limitations in terms of populations that are widely affected by the digital divide.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

All authors contributed to and have approved the final manuscript. In this article, we declare that all authors contributed equally.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Ümmühan Avcı

Hatice Yıldız Durak

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