Libraries roles and practices to enhance information resilience: Academic librarians’ perspectives

Abstract

COVID-19 has changed the information landscape. The results were the wide spread of information of all kinds and from all sources, leading to increased information disorder (i.e. disinformation, misinformation practices). This study aimed to explore the practices of academic libraries during times of crisis from the staff perception in four public universities in Jordan to correct the information disorder and hence create information resilience among community members. Exploring these practices helps shed light on the libraries’ contribution to creating information resilience practices and hence an information-resilient community. An interview was used to collect deep insights from 26 library staff working in the Information Division at the four academic libraries. The results were mainly directed towards the importance of increasing community awareness and providing access to quality information sources. It also affirmed the importance of information skills to help individuals locate the right and accurate information. It was affirmed that developing and promoting information literacy programmes was the main pillar to countering information disorder and establishing information resilience. The findings will provide insights for other academic libraries on the best practices to create a information resilient community.

Keywords

Academic libraries infodemic information disorder information literacy information resilience information skills

1. Introduction

The outbreak of COVID-19 has affected people’s information experience [1]. There are different sources of information about the pandemic, which increased the complexity of information, creating multilayered information environments. This information is tailored, repackaged and communicated across multiple information channels, including social media, peer review websites and government websites. However, this complexity and multiplicity might intensify the risk of information disorder [1]. The wide spread of misinformation and disinformation has the potential to be disastrous and dangerous in political and societal spheres. COVID-19 has created what is called ‘infodemic or information disorder’ or ‘Covidinfo-deluge’. Information disorder has accelerated in the digital age[2,3]. Through digital channels, any type of information, whether factual, untrue, biased or misleading, can be quickly disseminated [4]. Information disorder is the process of disseminating erroneous information with often negative repercussions for the receiver who interprets the information [4]. It includes disinformation, misinformation, mal-information and fake news, depending on the harm produced by the content. Misleading or false information can negatively impact people’s ability to make informed decisions and effectively exercise their rights to health, a fair election and non-discrimination, among other things. Access to quality information (in a broad sense) drives development and enables people to exercise their rights more effectively [2,3]. In response to this, libraries need to be open to change and flexibly embrace it. Flexibility is part of a broader concept that libraries should embrace, and that is resiliency. In a library context, resilience might be associated with a library environment, information landscape and information behaviour and practices.

This created an opportunity for libraries to reaffirm their role as indispensable institutions for information dissemination. Ali and Gatiti [5] affirmed that all libraries of different types share the same responsibility towards their community to share evidence-based information about pandemics. In line with this, Chisita [6] affirmed that libraries should work on communicating important information to raise awareness of the risks and preventive measures. Their role is to contribute to decreasing misinformation through health information literacy. COVID-19 urged academic libraries to accelerate the digitalisation of library services in response to the pandemic [7]. Moreover, Perkham [8] pointed out that social media might contribute to an increased panic and cause information disorder, affirming the role of libraries in correcting this disorder.

Moreover, Martyn Wade, Chair of International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) Freedom of Access to Information and Freedom of Expression (FAIFE) [9], affirmed that it is the librarian’s responsibility to ensure that users and citizens have free access to accurate, high-quality information and knowledge that is useful to them – and as part of that. He added that librarians also assist individuals in developing the skills they need to discover and utilise this information and knowledge effectively. He further added that libraries need to respond to information disorder by assisting people in navigating the growing tide of misinformation and disinformation to find the information and knowledge they require by providing advocacy, tools and support.

1.1. Research problem

The aforementioned have pointed out libraries as centres that support a lifelong learning process, and, therefore, they are responsible for promoting and facilitating practices to ensure information resilience among individuals and the whole community. In Jordan, there are 10 governmental academic libraries. Academic libraries in Jordan account for the majority of libraries in Jordanian society, and as such, they have a responsibility to support the entire Jordanian community. As a result, the goal of this study is to look into academic libraries’ social responsibility to enhance information practices to create information resilience among community members. It also aims to highlight academic libraries’ contributions and practices in raising public information skills and awareness to ensure that they get the right information to be immune against information disorder and hence information-resilient. This role is magnified during health crises, specifically COVID-19, where academic libraries can and should help raise public health awareness during health crises, especially in light of the increased rate of rumours and fake news.

2. Information disorder

The rise of the digital age has brought information to people’s doorstep with a click or a swipe. This is a double-edged sword. Accordingly, the information ecosystem has become dangerously contaminated, separating rather than uniting people. Information disorder refers to a collection of terms: disinformation, misinformation or mal-information [10]. Disinformation refers to unethical and purposeful dissemination of false content intending to damage people [11 –13]. It is driven by three main factors: making money, having international or domestic political power, or causing problems for the sake of causing trouble [10]. Misinformation refers to false content that is shared by someone who is unaware that it is untrue or misleading. It usually occurs as a result of sharing/spreading disinformation [14,15]. The scenario is that a piece of disinformation is frequently picked up by someone who is unaware that it is untrue and shares it with their networks in the mistaken belief that they are assisting. Finally, mal-information refers to true information that is disseminated with the goal of harming person, organisation or country [10,12]. Fake news is another term that is related to information disorder. Bangani [16] used this term as an umbrella term for all information disorder terms (misinformation, disinformation and mal-information). In his research, he defined fake news as the invention and distribution of false or incorrect information as credible information. Information disorder can cause worry, anxiety, uneasiness and apprehension [12]. Information disorder called for urgency to prepare individuals to cope with the challenge created by information disorder. Libraries have always been viewed as centres that discern authentic and reliable information sources.

3. Information resilience in libraries

Resilience is a term originated and borrowed from psychology. It means the ability to recover from or adjust to misfortune or change [17]. Many researchers have defined resilience in ecology, psychology, health, social welfare, community and business [18,19]. They all agree that resilience is the ability to bounce back, adapt and transform. According to the Centre for Digital Built Britain [20], information resilience can be defined as ‘the process of reducing the vulnerability of information to threats during its lifespan: creation and use, storage and reuse, and preservation stages’. Chaudhuri [21] stated that a resilient community could cope with external stresses and disturbances as a result of social, political and environmental change. He referred to information resilience as the community’s ability to respond with immediacy to receiving sustainable, assured and trusted information to (1) absorb the effects of shocks and stress, (2) adapt to changing circumstances and (3) transform during uncertainty.

Lloyd [22] has pointed out a variety of factors that can influence resilience, one of which is access to information and the development of sound information literacy practices among community members. The advances in information and communication technologies (ICTs) have made it easier for libraries to contribute to enhancing resilience in times of crisis. Its role lies in facilitating information to society members to help them cope with new circumstances and adapt to new situations. Information resilience might be the other side of the coin for sustainable development. In line with this argument, IFLA [23] reported that libraries could support all the sustainable development goals (SDGs) through access to information. IFLA [23] affirmed one main aspect to achieve this, promoting universal literacy, including digital, media and information literacy and skills, with the support of dedicated library staff.

Libraries are considered to be centres for trusted sources of information to support the self-learning process and pandemic-related preventive measures [5,24,25]. Libraries are expected to work hard to provide access to information and disseminate accurate health-related information using digital platforms. Furthermore, when people have functional information literacy, they can critically evaluate the information they receive, removing the unfavourable fake news that creates an infodemic when spread widely [12].

4. Libraries in response to information disorder

The IFLA Statement on Digital Literacy in 2017 emphasised the importance of extending traditional libraries and librarians’ literacy into the digital world, ensuring that users are skilled enough to manage and use digital information and knowledge. In line with this, the term digital literacy emerged and is defined as the users’ ability to fully exploit the potential of digital tools and efficiently, effectively and ethically use technology to meet information needs in their personal, civic and professional life. Furthermore, the IFLA [9] emphasised its global vision towards ‘strong and united library field powering literate, informed and participative societies’. UNESCO also recognises information literacy as one of major human rights and the foundations of democracy [10,26]. Moreover, IFLA [2,3], in the IFLA Statement on ‘Fake News’ and the ‘Fake News’ infographic, further affirmed the importance of media and information literacy as the most sustainable strategy to solve disinformation concerns without jeopardising human rights.

Furthermore, IFLA [9] has identified some strengths and opportunities to help libraries address the challenge of fake news:

IFLA and libraries must be advocates of equal and free access to information and knowledge.

IFLA and libraries must update their conventional role and constantly adjust to develop digital literacies, learning and reading.

IFLA and libraries need to understand their community needs better and design services to their satisfaction and achieve impact.

IFLA and libraries must embrace digital innovation to keep up with ongoing technological changes.

Moreover, IFLA [27] stated that libraries need to promote universal literacy, including digital, media and information literacy and skills, with the support of dedicated staff and maintain access to information to contribute to improved outcomes across the SDGs.

During pandemic times, there is an increasing demand for information literacy programmes and instruction librarians [28]. Gross et al. [29] pointed out the responsibility of academic librarians to help students to become information literate by teaching them sophisticated information searching and information evaluation skills. Libraries need to strengthen their capacity to disseminate information about pandemics, such as COVID-19, and all other critical situations and crises to enable citizens to take precautionary measures against it and control rumours and fake news [5]. Also, librarians should provide consultation and training on how to access relevant information sources [6]. It needs to promote information literacy among community members. According to the Association of College & Research Libraries (ACRL) [30], information literacy ‘is the set of integrated abilities encompassing the reflective discovery of information, the understanding of how information is produced and valued, and the use of information in creating new knowledge and participating ethically in communities of learning’. Lloyd [22] emphasised the responsibility of libraries to design training programmes to enhance users’ information literacy skills. In line with this, Durodolu and Ibenne [12] affirmed that individuals and students at academic institutions must be information literate to reduce the risks caused by false news access. Also, Durodolu and Ibenne [12] pointed out that becoming information literate is a process that leads to an individual’s ability to make logically elevated judgements in terms of information use and knowledge application.

According to UNESCO [31], information literacy allows people to access information relevant to all aspects of life, including health, the environment, education, and job, empowering them to take charge of their lives and make educated decisions. In the increasingly digital environment, persons with information literacy abilities are better able to navigate cyberspace and make the most of content. People with information literacy can also become independent producers of information [10,26]. Moreover, the CILIP Information Literacy Group (CILIP) [32] and the European Commission [33] attributed media and information literacy as one of the main pillars to counter disinformation and help users to safely navigate the digital media. In line with this, Agosto [34] and Dalkir and Katz [35] pointed out libraries as important channels to contribute and develop a comprehensive strategy to enhance information literacy and information skills to combat misinformation.

An evaluation tool called CRAAP (Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose) was developed by the California State University Library. Also, Auberry [36] reported that librarians at the Indian River State College in the United States developed a news literacy instruction programme that was offered to library users (both students and faculty). RADAR (Rationale, Authority, Date, Accuracy, and Relevancy) was developed as an outcome of this initiative. RADAR was adopted from CRAAP. IFLA [2,3] acknowledged that libraries have the reputation and the skills to make an important contribution in response to the pandemic information deluge. Accordingly, it reproduced its popular ‘How To Spot Fake News’ infographic, COVID-19 edition, focusing on the need to check information with other sources. Other researchers also pointed out the impact of media and information literacy on how users evaluate information and cause behavioural changes (e.g. fact-checking practices) and also increase individuals’ ability to detect fake news [37 –39].

The quick and wide spread of COVID-19 has created a challenge, yet an opportunity for libraries to reaffirm and reassume their role as indispensable institutions for information dissemination. IFLA [9] emphasised the ethical and institutional role of libraries and librarians in facilitating access to reliable and authentic information, harnessing the potential of digital tools and providing support for digital literacy. Chisita [6] also affirmed that the libraries’ role is to contribute to decreasing misinformation through health information literacy. In line with this, Perkham [8] affirms the role of libraries in correcting the disorder created by social media influence that might cause information disorder. Information literacy has been identified as one of the most feasible and effective methods in fighting fake news and misinformation and hence promoting information resilience [40]. Buschman [41] also affirmed that libraries play a major role in countering fake news through specific educational actions aimed at countering widespread fake news. Libraries can help provide assistance during times of crisis using their websites and social media pages. For instance, many libraries have updated their websites and provided better links to electronic content. For example, University of Michigan Library [42] and the Anatolian University Libraries Consortium (ANKOS) [43] provided information about COVID-19 and useful links about COVID-19 on its website. Their website is rich with links to information resources, which users can follow to retain information. Also, librarians in the United Kingdom have been ‘generating awareness, filtering fake information, supporting researchers and faculty members and providing reference and document delivery services’ [44].

5. Methods

The goal of this study is to investigate academic libraries’ role in reforming information disorder. It has a social responsibility towards local community, especially during health crises, such as COVID-19, to correct this deviation and build information resilience among users and the community as a whole. This research is based on a case study design facilitating an exploration of how library staff views the academic libraries’ role to correct information disorder. A case study design was used because case studies are useful in examining contemporary events where the relevant behaviour cannot be manipulated A holistic case study (single unit of analysis) and multiple cases (four cases) were used. Informed consents were obtained from participants after explaining the study aims and objectives. Their identity was guaranteed to be anonymous.

Data were collected through standardised open-ended interviews (n = 26) with library staff who are working in the Information Division at four main public universities in Jordan libraries, specifically, the University of Jordan Library, Jordan University of Science and Technology Library and Al-Balqa Applied University Library (see Table 1). Each interview lasted between 30 and 40 min, allowing participants to fully express their viewpoints and experiences.

Table 1.

Academic libraries listing.

University name	Number of staff
University of Jordan Library	10
Jordan University of Science and Technology Library	7
Al-Balqa Applied University library	6
Mu’atah University Library	3
Total	26

A list of questions was prepared (as a guide). The interviewees had great leeway in their responses. Therefore, a lot of information and insights were proposed in some matters. The list of topics covered were as follows:

– Information value;

– Information disorder concept;

– Information resilience concept;

– Libraries’ perceived role in countering information disorder;

– Practices to counter/correct information disorder;

– Barriers/challenges that libraries face in countering information disorder.

5.1. Thematic analysis

Thematic analysis is a method used for identifying and analysing patterns in data-derived subjects concentrating on the data’s commonalities [45] It aids in the comprehension of qualitative data that can be ambiguous, perplexing and difficult to comprehend. It systematically explains coding mechanisms and qualitative data analysis and can thus be linked to broader theories or concepts [45]. It is a six-phase analysis process. These are as follows:

– Familiarisation with the data: it involves reading and re-reading the data to develop a sense of the overall data set.

– Coding: identify important features of the data and generate meaningful labels (codes) that appear to be relevant in answering the research question. This phase is iterative and flexible.

– Generating initial themes: examining the codes and collated data to classify them into more meaningful patterns of meaning (potential themes).

– Reviewing themes: checking the candidate themes against the data set to determine whether they tell a meaningful story that answers the research question. In this phase, themes might be split, combined or discarded.

– Defining and naming themes: involves developing the analytic narrative that encases the presented data. This involves checking clarity, cohesion and precision of the themes. It also involves deciding on an informative name for each theme.

– Writing up: This final phase involves weaving together the analytic narrative and data extracts and contextualising the analysis in relation to existing literature.

The phases are sequential, where each phase builds on the previous. However, the analysis is a recursive process where the researcher sometimes needs to move back and forth between different phases.

Thematic analysis was used to analyse the interview data in this study. The researcher used inductive analysis methodology to collect answers for each question after conducting interviews and gathering the necessary data and information. A set of keywords or the so-called codes for each question and its related answers were extracted first, and then codes were transformed into themes.

During the process of coding, the frequency of each code was calculated to find indicators of the answers to the questions. Then, for each code, the percentage and consensus of the participant on each code/paragraph during the coding process was calculated using the following formula:

Percentage = \frac{number of answers indicating the code}{total number answers} * 100 %

6. Results

6.1. Information value

The respondents indicated that information is important in enhancing decision-making (92%) and increasing the country’s international performance indicators and sustainability (88%). They also indicated that it affects an individual’s behaviour (Figure 1). For instance, one respondent indicated,

... information is one of the most important aspects that should be nurtured and we as librarians play a major role to helps people to locate valuable information that helps them make informed decisions, especially now with information overload ... (Information division staff)

Figure 1.

Information value.

Also, information is a capital asset for the community:

... if we need to be among the leading communities around the globe, we need to create information and develop knowledge community first. We need to support individuals by providing them with authentic and accurate information resources that can satisfy their information needs. We have a role to help them maintain an information base to support them during their life and work ... (Information division staff)

Furthermore, information could also increase the competitive advantage of organisations:

... information means competitive advantage to organizations. For example, in our library, we need and use information about our users to make decisions related to subscriptions and to develop our information collection based on their attributes and patterns of use... everyone needs information to move forward in their practical life and make good decisions...the value of information is strongly associated with information quality, and hence users need to know how to find and use information ... (Head of information division)

Moreover, one respondent indicated that individuals need to handle information properly to be able to utilise its embedded value:

... information is everywhere, users can easily locate information to satisfy their information needs; however, they still need to be sure about the quality of information they find to be able to make good decisions ... they might lack the skills to evaluate information, so we librarians can step in and offer consultation on where to find information and how ... (Information division staff)

... a library is not only a place where you find information, but it’s more than just this, it is a lifelong learning center. I enjoy it when patrons come to me and ask questions for information about how and where to look for subject-related information ... or to teach them about search techniques ... (Information division staff)

... information’s value is about how to use information and be sure of how this information works for you ... and this is the essence of a librarian’s job. (Information division staff)

Responses have been mainly directed towards the inherent value of information to guide individuals to make informed decisions and increase their competitive advantage. Libraries contain reliable information as well as critical resources that communities require to thrive [23] and hence are centres for trusted sources of information to support the self-learning process and pandemic-related preventive measures [5]. For example, during the COVID-19 outbreak, libraries were expected to work hard to provide access to information and disseminate accurate health-related information using digital platforms. They can share evidence-based information about pandemics. The library staff also affirmed that academic libraries should offer consultation services to support patrons in locating and evaluating information sources. These results, along with existing literature, such as Chesley et al. [46], Mahnaz [47], Mehta and Wang [48], Anderson et al [49] and IFLA [27], affirmed that libraries need to expand their online services and offer virtual reference consultations and live chat services. The results also pointed out the importance of information literacy and skills for users to increase their ability to exploit information value. Also, Lloyd [22] pointed out the responsibility of libraries to understand users’ information needs and information skills and offer information related to their needs and design training programmes to enhance their information literacy skills. Many researchers also affirmed the importance of promoting information literacy guided by librarians and directed to users to counter the negative influence of mis/disinformation and fake news [2,3,6,32 –36,50].

6.2. The concept of information disorder

The staff at the four universities were asked about the concept of information disorder. Their responses vary, indicating different perspectives in what information disorder encompasses. A majority of them indicated that it is fake news (77%). Other respondents indicated that it is either misinformation or disinformation (46%). Only 65% and 62% of respondents were familiar with the terms misinformation and disinformation, respectively (see Figure 2). This is alarming and calls for actions to increase librarians’ awareness of the terms related to information disorder. More importantly, the respondents are from the information division and were expected to be familiar with the concept of information order and related terms (fake news, mis/disinformation).

Figure 2.

The concept of information disorder.

Some of the answers indicated that information disorder is related to misinformation:

... for me, information disorder means spreading wrong information without checking it for truth and reliability. These practices that are widely spread these days over social media outlets ... this problem is getting serious and is like a virus that infects the lives of individuals. (Information division staff)

Another participant indicated that information resilience is misinformation and appeared to be familiar with the term:

... I think this is misinformation phenomenon!! I counter a lot of this type of information where I think it’s dangerous if propagated further ... it seriously and negatively affects our perception and decisions ... I know what information is right for me and for the situation I need the information for, but what about others!!! ... (Information division staff)

Another library staff said it is disinformation:

... with information overload, we see a lot of information from different sources. This type of information can purposively damage our perspectives and cause irreversible damage ... (Information division staff)

Another staff indicated but did not indicate the term disinformation:

ID is wrong information meant to cause damage or harm others ... the problem is that we might contribute to spreading this type of information unintentionally without relishing the quality and integrity of it ... (Information division staff)

One head of information division implied that information disorder is:

I came across the ID term in an article about fake news. The term is related to the quality of information and intention of inflicting harm to the receivers ... (Head of information division)

Almost all respondents indicated an underrating of the term information disorder, either referring to it partially by implying its definition or as misinformation, disinformation and/or fake news. One interesting observation is that the respondents occasionally use terms such as misinformation and disinformation and even fake information, but no one mentions the term mal-information. This might raise the need to train library staff on information disorder types and components and how to differentiate between the different types to help the staff recognise all practices related to information disorder and how to counter-fight it. Moreover, as indicated by the responses, the familiarity ratios were not as expected, suggesting the need for more specialised librarians and information specialists to train librarians from different disciplines, such as IT or science.

6.3. The concept of information resilience

The Information Department staff at the University of Jordan showed a lack of understanding of the concept of information resilience. About 15.4% of the respondents (4/26) were able to indicate a definition for information resilience. One of the answers indicated that information resilience is:

... the ability to find and use information of good quality and apply it to different situations to solve problems and make decisions ... (Information division staff)

Another participant indicated that information resilience is:

... an application of ICT technologies to locate the right information from anywhere and at any time I need the information. It also means the ability to know what information is right for me and for the situation I need the information for ... (Information division staff)

The other library staff said,

... with information overload, information might indicate the ability to choose information of good quality and filter out the right information from the wrong or fake ones ... (Information division staff)

The Head of Information division implied that information resilience is:

A set of skills and practices that enable individuals to make a judgment on information quality and the ability to filter out quality information from a pool of information from different sources and in different formats ... (Head of information division)

Although the participant did not indicate a high awareness of information resilience as a concept, they were aware of their role and responsibility towards their community to provide information support to ease the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic. After explaining the term resilience to the participant, they could contribute their thoughts of the term and relate it to their profession practices. All respondents then indicated that information resilience is about finding the right information and of good quality to apply it in their problem-solving and decision-making (see Figure 3). All this is pointing out information literacy as practices that lead to information resilience. This also was supported by De Paor and Heravi [25] and Durodolu and Ibenne [12]. Their results confirmed the role of libraries to work hard to provide access to information and disseminate accurate health-related information using digital platforms. They further elaborate that, when people have functional information literacy, they can critically evaluate the information they receive, removing the unfavourable fake news that creates an infodemic when spread widely.

Figure 3.

Information resilience concept.

All of the respondents further elaborated that with the outbreak of COVID-19, information became the source of comfort for all society members. They indicated that individuals turn to all sorts of media platforms, especially social media platforms, to locate information related to the pandemic. Almost all respondents asserted the point that individuals need accurate information of high quality to ease their situation. The accessibility and availability of information on different sites create a challenge for information society and information institutions, and hence has increased the risk of people’s engagement with inappropriate information. This reflects the deep understanding of the staff of the value of information and its role in an individual’s life. In line with this, Lloyd and Hicks [51] and Xie et al. [1] affirmed that the COVID-19 pandemic had increased the risk of people’s engagement with inappropriate information. Further discussion on the risk associated with people’s engagement with inappropriate information has pointed out the need for enhancing people’s information practices and skills.

The low level of awareness of the term information resilience might be justified by the fact that the term resilience originates from psychology science. The term is an emerging term that needs to be implemented in libraries and the information community to create a pattern of good practices to support community information needs and sustainability. To support this argument, IFLA [27] affirmed that free access to information enables individuals to make informed decisions and hence improve their lives. Also, Hamad and Al-Fadel [52] affirmed that access to information contributes to the quality of life of society. The results clearly point out the relationship between information skill that is information literacy and information resilience. Lloyd [22] has also pointed out access to information and the development of sound information literacy practices among community members as necessary to enhance information resilience.

6.4. Responsibilities to correct information disorder

Participants pointed out the important role that their libraries play in helping ease the impact of information disorder, that is, misinformation, disinformation and fake news. Most responses revolve around one main task that the library needs to focus on, which is prompting information literacy (92%) and facilitating access to authentic information sources (88%). Respondents’ indications on the libraries’ roles and responsibilities towards the local community are illustrated in Figure 4.

Figure 4.

Staff perception of libraries’ role to counter information disorder.

For instance, participants reported that

... the increased spread of information disorder raised alarm among librarians as we consider ourselves as agents to promote information values ... we need to help people locate valuable information that helps them make informed decisions ... this can be accomplished by promoting and enhancing information literacy. For example, our library published videos on its website and social media platforms to explain how to use the databases available in the electronic library during the crisis and how to search for their sources. We also held online courses that assist its patrons to access reliable sources of information about COVID-19 ... (Head of information division)

Another respondent indicated,

... we can contribute to controlling the spread of false information and rumors by publishing correct and reliable information on the library website and our social media pages ... however, this might not be enough; we need to implement information literacy as a key to success to counter the wide spread of fake news and misinformation ... (Information division staff)

Moreover, expanding library electronic collection subscriptions was one major role that libraries need to play; however, respondents also emphasised information skills as essential skills to enable users to handle information disorder:

... libraries play a major role in supporting its patron by expanding its electronic collection and databases collection and provide remote access to its various services. It also provides support in terms of increasing its patron critique skills, so they can filter out fake or wrong information. This is our role as information specialists to provide our users with the skills and techniques to evaluate information and recognize the right information from a pool of information ... (Information division staff)

... we understood that COVID-19 has disturbed normal life, and we thought that we needed to help during these difficult times by supporting our patrons and maintaining access to our collection so that users could stay connected to information from authentic parties. We also expanded our electronic collection ... however, the need to increase users’ information skills now is important ... (Information division staff)

Information resilience can be realised by providing users with authentic information from reliable sources:

... we knew that information can be a two-edged sword, we noticed the volume of information over social media ... we are information specialists and understand that we have a duty toward our community to support them and provide them with accurate and right information related to the pandemic. We had to come up with new services and actively engaged our social media page and provided short posts and links to useful information ... (Information division staff)

Expanding the library outreach and spreading library culture is also important:

... the problem with information was huge; we noticed that fake news, rumors, misinformation, disinformation were widely spreading, and this was alarming. We provided information on our website; however, we sensed that the problem was bigger than that. Library users might be able to locate information from trusted sources; however, the problem was with the rest of society, the non-library users. This issue is still a dilemma for us ... we realize that we need to expand our outreach ... (Information division staff)

In this regard, another respondent indicated,

... at least if we help a small portion of the community by providing them with information sources and skills on how to locate accurate information, this might be the beginning of the change. We realize that we cannot reach the whole community, but I think of it as a wave, the effect might reach the other community member from the ones who we trained ... (Information division staff)

... the library tried to outreach community members to provide online courses to help its patrons evaluate the information available on the Internet to protect them and their families from false, malicious information, and rumors, ... The library held online courses that helped its patrons to evaluate the information available on the Internet so that they could protect themselves and their families from false, malicious information, and rumors; however, the outreach was low ... (Information division staff)

Furthermore, collaboration with health care professionals is needed:

... we realize that we need to partner with academic staff from health schools to promote health literacy and organize health awareness campaigns ... the library can collaborate with health care professionals and publish information over our websites and social media pages ... (Information division staff)

... we have a responsibility to support medical research by providing reliable sources of information related to the pandemic to researchers ... (Information division staff)

One interesting response was

... the COVID-19 pandemic inflicted harm to information practices; however, it pointed out one major problem that needs to be handled properly, that is information disorder ... we realized that we have a great role in correcting the deviation in the information landscape related to the pandemic, and we dealt with it ... but what next? We managed the pandemic, but we need immunity for the other disease, the infodemic ... (Head of department)

Overall, it was noted that library staff perceived that academic libraries play a major role in supporting their patrons by expanding their electronic collection and database collection and providing remote access to its various services. Respondents appeared to have understood and realised their responsibility towards their community to support them in countering information disorder. The library has highly contributed to provide support to its users during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results indicated that the library has focused on the importance of raising public awareness about the pandemic and how to locate important information. For instance, the library disseminated information about COVID-19 on their websites, as well as provided links to useful information about the pandemic and its updates. The libraries also took participatory actions in providing information about COVID-19 on their homepage, emphasising the importance of increasing public awareness of the pandemic. The library staff seems to think that sharing information about the pandemic by sending short messages to the patrons helps to counter misinformation and fake news. Chisita et al. [43] also affirmed that libraries need to disseminate information about COVID-19 to enable citizens to take precautionary measures against it and control rumours and fake news.

Moreover, apparently, all responses can be summed into one main point, the library can contribute to decrease mis/disinformation and fake news through information literacy. Apparently, the respondents believe that although they can be supportive by providing community members with accurate information, individuals need to build up a base for themselves to self-learn and self-support when the situation is urgent. Information literacy appeared to be the solution for more robust information behaviour and practices. Chisita [6] also affirmed that libraries should work on communicating important information and contribute to decreasing misinformation through health information literacy. The library has recognised its identity as an information centre, and accordingly, it held online courses for patrons to evaluate the information available on the Internet so that they can protect themselves and their families from false, malicious information and rumours. This result is important as, in the age of social media, misinformation is spread through different social media channels [5,6] and here it is the libraries’ place to provide consultation and training on how to access relevant information sources [50]. Information literacy programmes are strongly needed to counter information disorder and enhance individual information-related practices. Lloyd [22] affirmed that to build information resilience, sound information literacy practices among community members need to be developed.

Libraries should take advantage of ICTs and contribute to enhancing resilience in times of crisis by facilitating information skills to society members to help them cope with new circumstances and adapt to new situations. Information literacy is recognised as one of the main pillars to counter disinformation and help users to safely navigate the digital media [23,32,33]. Also, the result affirmed the impotence of freedom to access information. This is concluded from the efforts made by many libraries to maintain access to information and the efforts to expand their online collection. This confirms along with one of the IFLA’s [9] core values about the endorsement of the principles of freedom of access to information. Lloyd [22] has also pointed out access to information and the development of sound information literacy practices among community members as necessary to enhance information resilience.

6.5. Barriers/challenges that face libraries to counter information disorder

During the discussion over the previous topic, the participant pointed out many challenges that might hinder their role in countering and correcting information disorder and enhance built information practices to create an information-resilient community. The main challenge they pointed out is that users use the Internet as the main source of information (100%). This might point out the absence of the libraries’ role in a student’s life. It might also suggest that libraries are still encapsulated in their past stereotypes where users come to the library. Information overload and the accelerated advancements in ICT have changed users’ behaviours and practices. Feldman (Goussous, 2016, p. 1) stated that ‘we need to make the library relevant to peoples’ lives ... we need to get it into personal phones’. She also emphasised that ‘when a library is a place of technology access, it is very important ... technology access goes beyond the PC and Internet access and (is) actually (about) educating people with a resource that is going to support individuals’ education’ (Goussous, 2016, p. 1). This strongly affirms the increasing role of libraries in light of the competition it faces. It plays an important role in helping ease the impact of information disorder, that is, misinformation, disinformation and fake news. Respondents’ perceptions and indications of the challenges that might limit libraries’ roles and responsibilities to counter information disorder are illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5.

Staff perception of challenges that limit libraries’ role to counter information disorder.

Some respondents indicate that the huge challenges are to bring users back to the library:

... libraries are competing with the Internet, users turn to Google to search for information ... we need to make more efforts to attract users back to the library ... (Information division staff)

... we need to change public perception of the library as a store for books ... libraries mean more than that; they are information facilitator centers ... continuous lifelong learning centers ... (Information division staff)

Respondents pointed out the weak library culture among community members that might hinder and limit its role towards its community (see Figure 5). This puts an extra load on libraries to reach beyond the limits and mindset of their manifestation as physical spaces and concentrate instead on building digital services and providing electronic access for users to access information from anywhere, anytime. Organisational culture in libraries seems to be another obstacle where library administration appears to concentrate more on electronic collection development rather than enhancing services that contribute to enhancing users’ perception of libraries and their role. This was evident in Figure 4, where the main responsibility, as pointed out by respondents, was collection development. This is also supported by the point ‘work overload’ that was affirmed by respondents (92%). This might suggest that library administration sees the library’s social responsibility in regard to countering information disorder as less important. Hence, the staff workload is not lessening to integrate other practices to counter information disorder. Another explanation is that the library staff are not really aware of what information disorder is nor their active role to counter this.

Further discussing the issue with the respondents raises another issue related to the absenteeism of the role of the library by governments and not involving it in the solution. Related to this argument, one respondent said,

... information disorder correction needs joint efforts from several parties, i.e., government, media and academic staff at the university ... we need to partner with these parties to be able to counter information disorder ... however, all parties are acting separately ... (Head of department)

Another has pointed out:

... academic libraries are part of academic institutions, and one objective of these institutions is scientific research, but sadly, libraries are not playing an active role in this regard ... we intend to provide support to scientific research, but there is a lack of collaboration between the library and academic staff ... (Information division staff)

This affirms the weak partnership between libraries and academic staff to support scientific research. In line with this, Hamad et al. [53] affirmed the lack of collaboration between academic libraries and academia about their research data needs.

The response might also indicate the lack of collaboration with academic staff to spread the library culture among students. They suggested the important need to integrate library resources and use them in the course design as a way to bring users back to the library and away from the Internet. They also affirmed the need to collaborate with Library and Information Science (LIS) departments to design information literacy courses and organise information literacy workshops for the community.

6.6. Research implications

This research aimed to identify roles and responsibilities of academic libraries in Jordan in countering information disorder and enhancing information resilience in the community. The study will be useful first for library managers to realise their libraries’ role towards the local community and, therefore, the advancement of information resilience and counter information disorder. This will assist them in planning employee training and workshops. Second, trainers can utilise it to organise training for academic librarians in Jordan and other underdeveloped nations. Other libraries, such as specialised and school libraries, will benefit from the findings of this study, as they are all regarded to be parts of the overall information support system. It will also assist LIS departments and institutions in revising their curricula to reflect the market’s required skills and competencies for academic librarians.

Given the presented results, it is crucial to keep ongoing training for library staff on the important roles and responsibilities of academic libraries related to information disorder and information resilience. They all acknowledged the library’s role and responsibilities in countering information disorder and hence creating information resilience by providing individuals with skills related to locating information to create a better-informed society. Moreover, libraries need to form a collaboration with other libraries, academic staff, government and other agencies to build strong information. Furthermore, it is important to increase staff awareness about their role in providing information support and to train them to realise their role, especially their awareness of information resilience concept. This is important as enhancing information resilience practices lead to decrease information disorder. The results indicated that the practice these libraries implement to counter information disorder is still relatively moderate, especially in terms of enhancing individual’s information critique skills. Librarians need to have greater collaboration with professionals in different fields to conduct research on information disorder phenomena and provide solutions to various issues. Moreover, the results indicated that creating and enhancing information resilience through information literacy results in easing information disorder and vice versa. There is also a need to increase staff awareness of the phrase information resilience and develop a model or a guide to enhance information society practice to create information resilience among community members.

6.7. Research limitations

This research was limited to library staff who are working in the information division at four academic libraries in Jordan. This means that other library staff perceptions are not explored and, therefore, further investigation is needed. The results here reflect one perspective (one department) of the subject, especially the concept of information resilience. Another limitation of this study is that some staff in the information division specialise in library and information science.

7. Conclusion

The spread of COVID-19 puts extra demands on librarians and information professionals to take participatory action to counter information deluge/disorder – especially misinformation, disinformation and fake news. This study set out to investigate the roles and responsibilities of academic libraries in developing countries – Jordan as a case study – to counter information disorder and promote information resilience among the community it serves. According to the results, the staff has realised their role and responsibilities towards their community and the public community as well. Information literacy infrastructure appeared to be the main pillar in supporting the information community to counter the negative effect of information-related malpractices, that is, misinformation, disinformation and fake news. Providing information literacy programmes is needed to build information resilience by enabling individuals to evaluate informants available from different resources and hence correct information disorder. It was also noted that it is important to increase academic libraries’ support for research and public community by providing authentic information sources about the pandemic to both increase public awareness about the pandemic and contribute to the production and dissemination of research related to the pandemic. The results affirmed that maintaining access to information remains a social responsibility of librarians and information personnel. Academic libraries’ contribution to ensuring public health awareness and the provision of up-to-date information to all society members have been recognised where libraries can provide information infrastructure. Libraries need to magnify their efforts to make sure that information is available to everyone and that they have the skills to find and use information for their benefit.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We thank all the participants who provided accurate insights of their experience to help in transferring their experience to other libraries that might benefit from the shared knowledge and experience.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Faten Hamad

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