Nonresident Fathers’ Parenting Style and the Adjustment of Late-Adolescent Boys

Abstract

This study investigates the relation between nonresident fathers’ parenting style, mothers’ parenting style and behaviors, and depression and antisocial behavior in a sample of late-adolescent boys (n = 177). Hierarchical regression analyses were performed. Maternal psychological well-being was associated with fewer adolescent depression symptoms. When mothers had low or average amounts of aggravation in parenting, fathers’ more authoritative parenting was related to fewer depression symptoms in their adolescents. Maternal aggravation in parenting was associated with adolescent antisocial behavior. When mothers had low or average levels of authoritative parenting, fathers’ more authoritative parenting was related to less antisocial behavior in their adolescents.

Keywords

nonresident fathers parenting style authoritative fathering

Research suggests that children with nonresident biological fathers are at greater risk of adjustment problems than children in homes with married biological parents. These problems include emotional, conduct, academic, and peer problems, as well as hyperactivity and delinquency (Dunn, Deater-Deckard, Pickering, O’Connor, & Golding, 1998; Manning & Lamb, 2003). However, although a number of factors that explain this relationship have been examined, the specific factors that lead to or protect against these problems are still unclear.

Early researchers suggested that family structure and frequency of contact might explain the presence of adjustment problems in children with nonresident fathers. However, empirical support for the explanatory value of these features of nonresident fathering has been weak (Amato & Gilbreth, 1999; Manning & Lamb, 2003). Other researchers have identified alternative features of nonresident fathering that might better explain children’s adjustment. Amato and Gilbreth (1999) suggest that fathers’ use of the authoritative parenting style is associated with more positive well-being in children. Characteristics of mothers also are important predictors of children’s adjustment in nonresident father family situations. For example, when fathers were nonresident and mothers had fewer symptoms of depression, higher levels of psychological well-being, or lower levels of aggravation in parenting (Brown, 2004; Dunn et al., 1998), children had higher levels of adjustment.

The current investigation examines the association between nonresident fathers’ parenting style, above and beyond maternal factors, and adolescent outcomes. Additionally, it examines how nonresident fathers’ authoritative parenting may buffer their sons from nonoptimal maternal behaviors.

Paternal Parenting Style

Beginning with Baumrind’s seminal work on parenting style and continuing through the present (Baumrind, 1966; Fletcher, Steinberg, & Sellers, 1999; Maccoby, 1992; Steinberg, 2005), developmental psychologists in the United States have suggested that the authoritative parenting style leads to many positive outcomes in children. These outcomes include better academic achievement, fewer problem behaviors, and better psychological adjustment (Fletcher et al., 1999; Maccoby & Martin, 1983).

Although the positive effects of authoritative parenting by mothers or parents as a unit have been well documented for children residing within intact families, less is known about the role of authoritative parenting when used by fathers, and even less about authoritative parenting by nonresident biological fathers. Some investigations do examine parenting behaviors that are consistent with authoritative parenting by nonresident fathers. In general, these parenting behaviors are associated with positive adolescent outcomes. A meta-analysis conducted by Amato and Gilbreth (1999) suggests that paternal parenting style is very important with regard to academic achievement, externalizing problems, and internalizing problems in children with nonresident fathers. They found behaviors related to paternal authoritative parenting (e.g., providing explanations for rules and monitoring children’s school performance) to be a more consistent predictor of child well-being than child support payments, closeness, and amount of contact. Nonresident father–child activity, supportive behaviors (Bronstein, Stoll, Clauson, Abrams, & Briones, 1994), and affective relationships with a nonresident father (White & Gilbreth, 2001) also have been found to be related to child well-being. Although not explicitly labeling it authoritative parenting, Simons, Whitbeck, Beaman, and Conger (1994) used a measure of fathers’ parenting that included behavior consistent with authoritative parenting. They found that this measure of fathers’ parenting was longitudinally related to fewer externalizing behaviors. Similarly, responsive fathering has been related to higher grades, lower levels of externalizing behavior, and lower levels of internalizing behavior (King & Sobolewski, 2006).

Maternal Behavior and Interactions

Although nonresident fathers’ authoritative parenting style may be an important predictor of child outcomes, it also is important to take into consideration mothers’ behaviors. Previous research has suggested that maternal psychological well-being and maternal aggravation in parenting are associated with adolescent outcomes when the adolescent has a nonresident father. Additionally, there is evidence to suggest that maternal authoritative parenting would be related to adolescent outcomes as well.

Maternal parenting style

Similar to the paternal parenting style literature, there are few studies that examine maternal parenting style in the context of having a nonresident biological father. However, there is reason to believe that maternal parenting style may interact with paternal parenting style to predict adolescent outcomes. In their investigation of intact families, Fletcher et al. (1999) found that adolescents who have at least one authoritative parent have better academic success than adolescents with no authoritative parents. Although these results are based on data from intact families, they suggest that when a nonresident biological father is not authoritative, a child may benefit from having a mother who is authoritative. Conversely, it is possible that the relation between having at least one authoritative parent and positive child outcomes holds even in the case of nonresident fathers. That is, if a resident mother is not authoritative, a child may benefit from having a nonresident father who is authoritative.

Maternal characteristics

In addition to maternal parenting style, other characteristics of mothers may contribute to the well-being of adolescents with nonresident fathers. Mothers’ mental health and levels of aggravation in parenting are related to child outcomes. In a variety of family types, it has been found that mothers’ better psychological well-being is related to fewer internalizing and externalizing problems in their children (Brown, 2004; Dunn et al., 1998). Maternal aggravation in parenting has been related to both internalizing and externalizing problems in children (Brown, 2004).

Present Study

The purpose of this retrospective investigation was to examine the associations between nonresident biological fathers’ authoritative parenting, maternal characteristics, and the adjustment of late-adolescent boys. Research suggests that having a nonresident biological father may have different effects on sons and daughters (Dunn et al., 1998; Furstenberg & Weiss, 2000; Manning & Lamb, 2003). Because of the nature of the investigation and the possibility of substantial gender differences, the focus of this investigation was only male adolescents.

This study examined the association between maternal characteristics, nonresident biological fathers’ parenting style, and adolescent outcomes. It examined how maternal characteristics were related to adolescent outcomes when the adolescents had nonresident fathers. It then examined how paternal authoritative parenting was related to adolescent outcomes, above and beyond the mother effects. Finally, it examined how mother characteristics interacted with paternal parenting style. It was hypothesized that boys with more authoritative nonresident fathers would report fewer depression symptoms and less antisocial behavior than those with less authoritative fathers. Additionally, it was hypothesized that when mothers exhibited less than optimal behaviors, paternal authoritative parenting could buffer the son from negative outcomes.

Method

Participants

Males with nonresident fathers were recruited from introductory psychology classes at a large, Midwestern university. Two hundred and sixty-four participants completed the questionnaires. Participants who indicated that their fathers had physical custody, those whose fathers were completely absent from their lives, those who were older than 25 years, and those whose fathers were deceased were excluded from this study. The final sample included 177 participants. Participants’ age ranged from 18 to 23 years (M = 19.05, SD = 1.03). Nineteen percent were African American, 2% were Asian, 3% were biracial, 6% were Latino, and 70% were White.

Measures

Demographics and background information

Basic demographic data were gathered. This included age, ethnicity, family income, and the age at which the father became absent from the home.

Authoritative parenting

The Children’s Report of Parent Behavior Inventory (CRPBI) was used to assess perceptions of the parenting styles of the nonresident father and the mother. The CRPBI was designed by Schaefer (1965) and revised by Schludermann and Schludermann (1970). It has consistently been shown to be a sensitive measure for both boys and girls assessing both mothers and fathers (Margolies & Weintraub, 1977; Schaefer, 1965), across ethnicities (Schludermann & Schludermann, 1983), and for children and adolescents (Margolies & Weintraub, 1977).

Participants completed the 40-item scale for mothers and fathers separately. Examples of items include “seems proud of the things I do” and “lets me off easy when I do something wrong” (reverse coded). The two subscales result in two continuous variables that represent levels of warmth and levels of behavioral control. Higher scores on each subscale represent, separately, more warmth and more behavioral control.

Maternal and paternal parenting styles were assessed using a continuous variable. The continuous parenting style variable was created by summing the warmth and behavioral control subscales. On this continuous parenting style variable, higher scores represent more authoritative parenting and lower scores represent less authoritative parenting. The scale alphas for this sample were good and are as follows: maternal CRPBI = .89, paternal CRPBI = .90.

Maternal psychological well-being and aggravation in parenting

The perception of maternal mental health and the perception of aggravation in parenting scales were adapted from scales used in the 1999 National Survey of America’s Families, which was analyzed by Brown (2004). Participants were asked five questions regarding their mothers’ psychological well-being. An example is “How often do you feel that your mother is nervous?” The questions were intended to assess participants’ general perception of their mothers after their parents’ separation. Higher scores represent higher well-being. The scale alpha for this sample was acceptable at .76. The assessment of perception of aggravation in parenting asked adolescents four questions regarding their perceptions of their mothers’ aggravation in parenting. An example is “To what extent does your mother feel that you do things that really bother her?” Higher scores represent more aggravation. The scale alpha for this sample was acceptable at .75.

Depressive symptoms

Participants were given the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (Radloff, 1977) to assess depressive symptomatology. This 20-item scale taps into three factors, depressed affect, positive affect, and somatic symptoms, which are then used in combination to form a general depressive symptomatology score (Shafer, 2006). Examples of items include “I had trouble keeping my mind on what I was doing,” “I felt just as good as other people” (reverse coded), and “My sleep was restless.” Higher scores represent more depressive symptomatology. The scale alpha for this sample was acceptable at .74.

Antisocial behavior

To assess the amount of antisocial behavior that the participant is involved in, participants were given a 15-item questionnaire to assess delinquency and a 10-item questionnaire to assess drug and alcohol use. The delinquency measure was used in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (as described in Manning & Lamb, 2003). This scale asks the frequency of a series of delinquent acts over the previous12 months. Examples of items include “deliberately damaged property” and “got into a serious physical fight.” The drug and alcohol use scale was adapted from Valentiner, Mounts, and Deacon (2004). It asks how often in the past 30 days the participant has used a series of drugs (e.g., cannabis, stimulants, and opioids). The responses from both the delinquency scale and the drug and alcohol use scale were summed to obtain an antisocial behavior score. Higher scores represent more antisocial behavior. The scale alpha for this sample was at .84.

Results

Data Analyses

To test the hypotheses, hierarchical regression analyses were performed, and the change in R² was analyzed. The continuous independent variables were centered prior to the analyses. Family income, ethnicity, and the amount of time since the departure of the father were entered as independent variables in the first block as controls. The three maternal characteristics (maternal authoritative parenting, maternal psychological well-being, and maternal aggravation in parenting) were entered in the second block. Paternal parenting style was entered in the third block. The three interaction variables (paternal authoritative parenting by each of the three maternal characteristics) were entered in the fourth block. The dependent variables, adolescent depression and antisocial behavior, were each entered in separate regression analyses. To interpret significant interactions, the simple slopes of the paternal parenting style groups were evaluated using methods described by Aiken and West (1991) and Jaccard and Turrisi (2003).

Descriptive Data

Bivariate correlations, means, standard deviations, and ranges for all the major variables used in the present analyses are presented in Table 1.

Table 1.

Bivariate Correlations and Descriptive Statistics for Major Variables

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6
1. Maternal authoritative parenting	—
2. Maternal psychological well-being	.40**	—
3. Maternal aggravation in parenting	−.35**	−.41**	—
4. Paternal authoritative parenting	.17*	.16*	−.15*	—
5. Adolescent depression	−.18*	−.32**	.33**	−.25**	—
6. Adolescent antisocial behavior	−.20**	−.23**	.31**	−.16*	.39**	—
Mean	95.01	17.18	9.88	86.38	17.57	10.34
Standard deviation	11.66	3.54	3.35	13.57	10.55	7.61
Range	61-114	7-25	4-20	46-117	0-50	0-43

p < .05. **p < .01.

Depression

Maternal psychological well-being and maternal aggravation in parenting were associated with depression (see Table 2). Male adolescents who perceived their mothers as having higher psychological well-being reported fewer depression symptoms (B = −0.60, p = .019; see Figure 1). Male adolescents who perceived their mothers as having more aggravation in parenting reported more depression symptoms (B = 0.61, p = .024). Above and beyond the maternal variables, adolescents whose fathers demonstrated more authoritative parenting reported fewer depression symptoms (B = −0.15, p = .012).

Table 2.

Hierarchical Regression Analyses for Paternal Parenting Style and Maternal Characteristics

		Depression				Antisocial Behavior
Block	Variable	B	SE	β	R²Δ	B	SE	β	R²Δ
1	Ethnicity	2.96	1.91	.13	.04	.00	1.38	.00	.06*
	Family income	0.07	0.57	.01		−.01	0.41	.00
	Time since father left family home	−0.32*	0.15	−.17*		−.33**	0.11	−.24
2	Maternal authoritative parenting (map)	−0.02	0.08	−.02	.12***	−.01	0.06	−.02	.09**
	Maternal psychological well-being (mat psy)	−0.60*	0.25	−.21		−.15	0.19	−.07
	Maternal aggravation in parenting (mat agg)	0.61*	0.27	.20		.60**	0.20	.27
3	Paternal authoritative parenting (pap)	−0.15*	0.06	−.19	.03*	−.07⁺	0.04	−.13	.02⁺
4	Map × pap	0.00	0.01	.03	.04*	.01**	0.00	.24	.09**
	Mat psy × pap	0.00	0.02	.02		.02	0.01	.11
	Mat agg × pap	0.05**	0.02	.21		.01	0.01	.04

Note: Unstandardized and standardized coefficients are reported.

p < .10. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Figure 1.

The association between maternal psychological well-being and adolescent depression

Beyond the main effects of maternal aggravation in parenting and paternal authoritative parenting, the interaction of paternal authoritative parenting and maternal aggravation in parenting was significant (B = 0.05, p = .007). The analysis of the simple slopes found that when the mother had low or average amounts of aggravation in parenting, the father’s authoritative parenting was associated with the son’s report of depression symptoms. When sons perceived low maternal aggravation in parenting, fathers’ more authoritative parenting was associated with fewer depression symptoms (B = −0.31, p < .001). When sons perceived average amounts of maternal aggravation in parenting, fathers’ more authoritative parenting also was associated with fewer depression symptoms (B = −0.14, p = .015; see Figure 2). When sons perceived high amounts of maternal aggravation in parenting, fathers’ authoritative parenting was not associated with sons’ depression symptoms (B = 0.019, p = .818).

Figure 2.

The association between paternal authoritative parenting and adolescent depression at low, average, and high levels of maternal aggravation in parenting

Antisocial Behavior

Maternal aggravation in parenting was associated with antisocial behavior (see Table 2). Male adolescents who perceived their mothers as having more aggravation in parenting reported more antisocial behavior (B = 0.60, p = .003; see Figure 3). Above and beyond the maternal variables, the main effect for paternal authoritative parenting approached significance (B = −0.07, p = .088), which suggests that with a larger sample size the main effect may reach significance.

Figure 3.

The association between maternal aggravation in parenting and adolescent antisocial behavior

Although the main effect of maternal authoritative parenting was not significant and the main effect for paternal authoritative parenting only approached significance, the interaction of these two variables was significant (B = 0.01, p = .002). The analysis of the simple slopes found that when the mother had low or average amounts of authoritative parenting, fathers’ authoritative parenting was associated with sons’ reports of antisocial behavior. When sons perceived low maternal authoritative parenting, fathers’ more authoritative parenting was associated with less antisocial behavior (B = −0.25, p < .001). When sons perceived average amounts of maternal authoritative parenting, fathers’ more authoritative parenting also was associated with less antisocial behavior (B = −0.11, p = .011; see Figure 4). When sons perceived high amounts of maternal authoritative parenting, fathers’ authoritative parenting was not associated with sons’ antisocial behavior (B = 0.028, p = .616).

Figure 4.

The association between paternal authoritative parenting and adolescent antisocial behavior at low, average, and high levels of maternal authoritative parenting

Discussion

Previous research has suggested that maternal and paternal parenting styles may both be important when investigating the adjustment of late-adolescent boys with nonresident fathers. This study examined how the interaction of maternal and paternal variables may be related to adolescent outcomes.

Not surprisingly, there was a main effect of maternal psychological well-being on adolescent depression. Adolescents who perceived their mother as having less psychological well-being also reported more depression symptoms of their own. This is consistent with previous research (Brown, 2004; Dunn et al., 1998). It could be that seeing their mother’s poor mental health might cause distress in the adolescent. Additionally, it could be that the genetic link between mother and adolescent includes a predisposition toward depression. Conversely, it could be that when mothers see their sons exhibiting depression symptoms, it contributes to compromised psychological well-being in the mother. Future longitudinal investigations could help identify the directionality of these relationships.

Adolescents’ perception of their mothers’ aggravation in parenting was associated with their reports of their own antisocial behavior. When adolescents perceived their mother as being more aggravated, they reported more antisocial behavior. Similar to the depression outcome, this is consistent with previous research (Brown, 2004; Dunn et al., 1998). However, also similar to the depression outcome, the directionality of this relationship is unknown. It could be that mothers’ aggravation in parenting, which may be exacerbated by the fact that the father is nonresident, leads to adolescents’ antisocial behavior. Alternatively, it could be that adolescents’ antisocial behavior is driving mothers’ aggravation in parenting.

Although there was a main effect of both paternal parenting style and maternal aggravation in parenting on adolescent depression, these results must be considered within the context of their significant interaction. It was when mothers had low or average amounts of aggravation in parenting that fathers’ authoritative parenting was related to sons’ reports of depression symptoms. When mothers had low or average amounts of aggravation and fathers had higher levels of authoritative parenting, sons reported fewer depression symptoms. This association was not present when mothers had high amounts of aggravation in parenting. Perhaps when mothers are highly aggravated, this overrides the positive effect of fathers’ authoritative parenting. This could be because the highly aggravated mother is proximal, whereas the authoritative father is seen less and is parenting from a greater distance. However, when mothers’ exhibit low or average levels of aggravation in parenting, it does seem that the fathers’ authoritative parenting can help buffer their sons against depression symptoms.

There was no main effect of either maternal or paternal parenting style on adolescent antisocial behavior. However, there was a significant interaction. This highlights the importance of examining how variables interact. The results in the present study suggest that when mothers demonstrate low or average amounts of authoritative parenting, fathers’ authoritative parenting is associated with sons’ reports of antisocial behavior. When mothers demonstrated low or average amounts of authoritative parenting and fathers demonstrated high amounts of authoritative parenting, adolescents reported less antisocial behavior. Thus, it seems that nonresident fathers’ authoritative parenting can buffer their sons against the negative effects of mothers’ less authoritative parenting. This is consistent with previous research (Fletcher et al., 1999), which suggested that having at least one authoritative parent is beneficial to adolescents’ well-being. However, this study goes beyond previous research to suggest that the one authoritative parent can be a nonresident father.

Limitations and Future Directions

There were a few limitations to this study. The first set of limitations concern the general nature of the data collection. The data are cross-sectional and retrospective. As discussed above, although it has been previously suggested (Brown, 2004) that maternal aggravation in parenting leads to the son’s antisocial behavior, it would be remiss not to mention the fact that it could be the son’s antisocial behavior that is leading to the mother’s less optimal parenting style and the higher maternal aggravation in parenting. Given that the data in this study are cross-sectional, it would not be appropriate to suggest firm conclusions about the directionality of the effects. Additionally, there may be inaccuracies in the reporting due to lapses in the memory of the participants. In the future, it will be important to conduct a prospective longitudinal study to fully understand the nature of the relations between nonresident fathers, mothers, and sons. However, one strength of these analyses is that paternal parenting style was examined simultaneously with each of the other independent variables. Therefore, the contribution of the father’s parenting style was assessed above and beyond the contribution of the mother’s parenting style and the two maternal characteristics.

An additional limitation of the investigation was that socioeconomic status and ethnicity were used as control variables. It would be better to have a large enough sample size to examine whether patterns of results varied for people of different ethnicities and socioeconomic statuses instead of merely controlling for these factors. Given that there might be ethnic or socioeconomic status group differences in the way in which extended families support families with nonresident fathers, it is important to extend this line of research to more diverse populations of adolescents.

The college sample limits the generalizability of the results. However, the fact that the sample did not seem to be especially high functioning suggests that this sample may not be extremely different from the general population. The mean of the depression scale was 17.57, which is above the clinical cutoff of 16. Additionally, when examining the antisocial behavior scale, the distribution was not overly skewed, and participants did admit to engaging in a wide variety of antisocial behaviors. It is, however, important to keep in mind that this was a college sample, and this study should be replicated with a community sample.

A further limitation of the investigation was the reliance on data from a single reporter. Therefore, it is important to keep in mind that there may be same-source bias in the reporting. It is possible that more depressed adolescents will report their parents’ behavior as being more negative. However, one important part of this study was the interactions. Since this study compares mothers and fathers in the interaction, any negative bias would likely affect reports of both mothers’ behavior and fathers’ behavior. Thus, the interaction effect would not be as sensitive to same-source bias.

Finally, due to the fact that daughters of nonresident fathers may be affected differently than sons of nonresident fathers, only boys were included in these analyses. This is not to suggest that having a nonresident father has no effect on girls. In the future, it will be important to conduct similar analyses with girls and to assess the gender differences.

Conclusion

This study contributes to the growing literature on the importance of nonresident fathers’ parenting behavior. It suggests that not only can nonresident fathers positively influence their sons’ behavior, but they can also buffer their sons from less than optimal maternal behavior. Additionally, this study contributes to the parenting style literature. The results suggest that nonresident fathers can provide the authoritative parenting behavior that is beneficial to child and adolescent development. Thus, it may be beneficial for practitioners who work with families with divorced parents and nonresident fathers to encourage fathers to continue positive involvement with their adolescents. Additionally, practitioners could emphasize to fathers that a father’s parenting could have a positive impact on his son even when the father does not think that the mother is engaging in optimal behavior.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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