Externalizing Behaviors in Multicultural Children of Immigrant Mothers

Abstract

Children and adolescents from multicultural families with an immigrant mother tend to experience stress due to problems with cross-cultural adaptation in South Korea, which has a homogeneous cultural identity. This study explored the impact of acculturative stress on externalizing behavior problems (e.g., aggressiveness and delinquency) among 121 elementary, middle, and high school students in Gyeonggi. It analyzed the mediating effects of acculturative stress on externalizing behaviors using structural equation modeling with bootstrapping method. The results showed that stress experienced in relation to cultural adaptation indirectly affected externalizing behaviors through school maladaptation. This indicates that while acculturative stress itself does not directly affect the externalizing behaviors of children and adolescents with immigrant mothers, it does appear to increase the difficulty of adjusting to the school environment, and as the maladaptation worsens, externalizing behaviors may subsequently develop. Schools must function as a protective environment against externalizing behavior problems associated with acculturative stress.

Keywords

acculturative stress school maladaptation externalizing behaviors mediating effect bootstrapping method

Introduction

The number of children and adolescents of multicultural families in South Korea is increasing. In 2012, there were over 50,000 such children attending elementary, middle, and high schools, and this figure is five times that observed in 2006 and a 21% increase from 2011 (Ministry of Education and Science Technology, 2012). Not only are children and adolescents of multicultural families passing through key developmental phases—namely, periods wherein they are sensitive to certain types of social influence, such as peer influence (Cho & Chung, 2012)—but they are also likely to encounter stressful situations in the process of adapting to mainstream culture. Previous studies have reported that the difficulties faced by children of different cultural backgrounds during cultural adaptation influence negative behaviors such as delinquency and violence in these children and adolescents (Jun & Shin, 2008; Nieri, 2012; Shin, Yun, & Lee, 2010). In particular, in a society with a homogeneous ethnic identity like Korea, children and adolescents of nonmainstream cultural backgrounds face more difficulties in adjusting to and developing within mainstream culture. Stressors occurring during acculturation may be unavoidable byproducts of adjusting to mainstream culture (Berry, 2003); however, seeking to prevent and intervene in ways that are based on a simple relationship between acculturative stress and behavioral problems may not be the most effective approach. The present study aimed to determine the processes by which the acculturative stress experienced by children and adolescents of multicultural families influences behavior problems, and to suggest arbitration and intervention strategies that are appropriate in light of this information.

The Relation of Acculturative Stress and Externalizing Behaviors

Children and adolescents of multicultural families are generally defined as sons or daughters of a marriage between an immigrant or naturalized citizen and an ethnically Korean citizen. With a long tradition as a homogeneous society, Korea is now witnessing a rise in the numbers of families with diverse and mixed cultural backgrounds. The majority of multicultural families in Korea include immigrant mothers. A multicultural family with an immigrant mother is typically formed through a marriage between a woman from elsewhere in Southeast Asia and a Korean man who is relatively disadvantaged financially or from a rural farming background; these men tend to have trouble finding a Korean spouse. These multicultural couples often experience severe marital problems, for reasons including a large age gap between husband and wife, the presence of language barriers, and the presence of different ways of thinking. The divorce rate for multicultural couples is currently rising (Ministry of the Gender Equality & Family, Multicultural Family Policy Division, 2013). Children and adolescents from these families are vulnerable; stress can be experienced due to basic cultural differences and general discrimination from within the community. These children are aware of the cultural gap between their homes and society, and this tends to lead to emotional confusion caused by acculturative stress.

Children and adolescents of nonmainstream cultural backgrounds consistently have difficulty adjusting to mainstream culture. General psychological stress theories posit that stress causes negative outcomes and behavioral problems (e.g., aggressive behavior and violence; Barlow, 2002). Additionally, acculturative stress has been shown to increase negative emotional states (Williams & Berry, 1991), trigger aggressive behavior (Smokowski, David-Ferdon, & Stroupe, 2009), and induce juvenile delinquency and conduct problems (Dinh, Castro, Tein, & Kim, 2009).

In contrast, other studies have reported that acculturative stress does not affect children’s externalizing behavior problems (Bird et al., 2006) and have found no significant direct relationship between acculturation and youth violence and delinquency (Gonzales, Deardorff, Formoso, Barr, & Barrera, 2006). Furthermore, some research has suggested that stress can enhance self-respect and helps bring about positive changes (Turner & Roszell, 1994). These conflicting results indicate that it is necessary to look at possible indirect factors related to stress and negative outcomes, rather than portraying stress as a direct cause of behavioral problems. Thus, the present study focused on the indirect effect of acculturative stress and explored the relationship between acculturative stress and externalizing behaviors in children and adolescents from multicultural families.

Acculturative Stress, School Maladaptation, and Externalizing Behaviors

Korean society has traditionally valued “genetic purity,” which has led to its long history of homogeneity. Against this background, children of different cultural backgrounds often experience discrimination and isolation, which makes it difficult for them to adapt and can lead to externalizing behavior problems (Nieri, 2012; Shin et al., 2010). Externalizing behavior problems are defined as negative behaviors directed toward the external environment (i.e., aggressiveness or delinquency that occurs from failures of emotional control; Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1978). Children of multicultural families have been reported to display more hostility than their peers from native families (An, 2008) and have a higher degree of aggressiveness, as well as being susceptible to other behavioral problems (Milan & Keiley, 2000). Furthermore, children of nonmainstream cultural backgrounds score higher than children from native families do on tests measuring light delinquencies, serious delinquencies, and cyber delinquencies (Jun & Shin, 2008). These data raise concerns about externalizing behavior problems displayed by children of multicultural families. It is therefore necessary to understand these children’s distinctive qualities and circumstances in order to better aid their adaptation.

Cultural adaptation is a transfer of values between two or more cultural systems. Acculturative stress results from inconsistent values across cultures, practical hardships, language barriers, and a sense of discrimination (Gil, Vega, & Dimas, 1994). Children of multicultural families with an immigrant mother are subject to acculturative stress because they are exposed to divergent cultural systems and social discrimination, and because they may have lost a sense of belonging (Smokowski et al., 2009). Such stress may be a mostly unavoidable byproduct of cross-cultural adaptation, and this stress can intensify social alienation and maladjustment (Hovey, 1998; Romero & Roberts, 2003; Sampson & Laub, 1996).

Since stress is intensified during cultural adaptation, and particularly in social settings, it is important to focus on the school environment, where children spend most of their time. Schools help children develop their intellectual abilities, general capabilities, and sense of belonging, all of which play a significant role in their psychosocial development (Cho & Lee, 2006). In addition, schools are an important means for children of different backgrounds to learn about the rules, norms, and systems of the local society and culture. Schools can serve as a “mini society” for children to learn about important cultural mores. As such, children may find themselves unable to adapt to the school environment if they acquire negative attitudes toward or lose interest in academic advancement, interpersonal relationships, or compliance with regulations (Chavez, Moran, Reid, & Lopez, 1997).

School maladaptation occurs when a child’s individual needs cannot be accommodated by the school system; this can cause conflict and lead to inappropriate behaviors. Research suggests that school maladaptation is relatively more pronounced among children from nonmainstream cultural backgrounds (Nieri, 2012). First, multicultural children’s distinctive physical qualities and potential difficulty with the Korean language are more likely to be noticed in a school environment. Multicultural children who are more conscious of their physical differences (e.g., skin and eye color) find it more difficult to adjust to a school setting than other children do (An, 2008; Wong, Eccles, & Sameroff, 2003). Children with poor language ability also demonstrate less adaptability (An, 2008). These findings suggest that the nonhomogeneous qualities of children of different cultural backgrounds are more likely to draw attention at school, creating a more stressful environment and making adaptation harder. Second, a collective entity, such as a school, can reflect Korean society as a homogeneous nation. Korean society has traditionally sustained a single-race, single-language social mentality that has valued or favored “genetic purity.” This homogenous cultural identity may be more easily detected in the restricted school environment, which may intensify feelings of alienation among children of different cultural backgrounds. Although there has been an increasing amount of support for and interest in multicultural families, children of diverse backgrounds are still likely to face some degree of difficulty and alienation.

Finally, it is important to consider children’s specific developmental stages. Childhood and adolescence is a time when peer influence and conformity become important; children are sensitive to social influences (Cho & Chung, 2012). In particular, these are periods when a tendency toward antisocial behavior can develop out of blind peer conformity. Therefore, children from nonmainstream backgrounds may be more likely to react in a maladaptive manner to negative social influences if they feel rejected or alienated by their peer group. In addition, these children and adolescents are especially vulnerable to victimization that targets a person’s cultural background (i.e., ethnic bullying). There are power imbalances between majority and minority groups in any school setting, and the ethnic composition of a given school or classroom plays an important role in ethnic bullying (Graham, Bellmore, Nishina, & Juvonen, 2009; Hanish & Guerra, 2000). That is, in a homogeneous-identity society such as Korea, children of nonmainstream cultural backgrounds are at greater risk of victimization, and victimization is apt to lead to maladaptation to the school environment.

School maladaptation may lead to interpersonal conflict and inappropriate behavior, since the individuals’ needs are not being accommodated by school life, and this in turn can lead to negative emotional states that are predictive of behavioral problems. Students who are not well adapted to their school environment tend to behave delinquently (Luster, Bates, Fitzgerald, Vandenbelt, & Key, 2000) and antisocially (Nieri, 2012; Shin et al., 2010). Children learn social roles and expectations (e.g., norm compliance, interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers, and academic achievement) through their school. It is important to ensure that schools foster self-confidence and enthusiasm for societal acculturation rather than leave multicultural children vulnerable to behavioral problems.

The majority of Koreans are more indifferent than open-minded toward children of mixed backgrounds (Seol, Lee, & Cho, 2006). However, as the number of children of multicultural families has increased in Korea, more interest has focused on understanding the acculturation processes experienced by these young people. These children are in a vulnerable position and at risk of developing behavioral problems due to poor social treatment, hence if a school becomes a place where acculturative stress is magnified rather than modified or diminished, the resulting maladaptation of its students may lead to problematic behavior. Thus, it is vital to develop proper interventions to facilitate children’s adaptation to the school environment.

The Present Study

The present study examined externalizing behavior problems in children and adolescents of multicultural families with an immigrant mother resulting from acculturative stress and maladaptation to school settings. Previous findings suggest that stress caused by cultural animosity, lack of group membership, and awareness of discrimination has a negative effect on school adaptation (Chavez et al., 1997), and that school maladaptation may affect aggressive behavior and delinquency (Luster et al., 2000). Furthermore, in children and adolescents from multicultural families, stress experienced during the process of cultural adaptation has been known to influence externalizing behaviors (Smokowski et al., 2009). Thus, a model was created according to which acculturative stress experienced by children of nonmainstream cultural backgrounds with immigrant mothers has an indirect effect on behavioral problems, with school maladaptation as a mediating variable.

Method

Participants and Procedure

Data were collected from Multicultural Family Support Centers in Gyeonggi Province. This area has the highest proportion of multicultural children and families in the country. The participants were 123 children of multicultural families with an immigrant mother residing in Gyeonggi Province. Of these, 72 were male (59.5%), and 49 were female (40.5%). Ages ranged from 12 to 18 years, with 75 participants in elementary school (62%), 35 in middle school (28.9%), and 11 in high school (9.1%). All were born in Korea to immigrant mothers and ethnically Korean-born fathers. The mothers had emigrated from the following countries in the following numbers: 46 were from China (38%), 32 from Japan (26.4%), 23 from the Philippines (19%), 12 from Vietnam (10%), 4 from Thailand (3.3%), and 4 from other countries (3.3%). Family economic status was divided across three tiers as follows: 93 families were low income (76.9%), 20 were middle income (16.5%), and 8 did not respond (6.6%).

Multicultural Family Support Centers were visited, the purpose of the study was explained, and informed consent was obtained from the participants as well as from the centers themselves. Twelve to 17 participants took part from each of the nine centers. All participation was voluntary. As the data were multilevel in nature, the intraclass correlation coefficient for each analysis was checked for the magnitude of the clustering effect; intraclass correlation coefficients were .0027 to .0053, showing that no action was needed to correct the effect. A preliminary survey was conducted with the participation of 11 elementary and middle school students with diverse cultural backgrounds to determine if the questions were appropriately worded and easily understandable. The main survey was completed between December 2011 and July 2012 on visits to each Multicultural Family Support Center. A total of 121 questionnaires were used in the final data analyses after excluding those with insincere responses (two cases). Missing data were addressed by multiple imputation. The present study was reviewed and approved by the institutional review board of the author’s institution.

Measurements

Acculturative Stress

The scales that Kim and Cho (2008) adopted from Sandhu and Asrabi (1994) were used to measure acculturative stress. These scales were modified to accommodate children from multicultural families in Korea. The acculturative stress scale consists of three factors: animosity, awareness of discrimination, and sense of belonging. Each item is rated on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly disagree (1 point) to strongly agree (5 points). The sense of belonging factor was reverse scored, with higher scores representing less belonging and greater acculturative stress. In the present study, the Cronbach’s alpha was .83 for animosity, .90 for awareness of discrimination, and .75 for sense of belonging.

School Maladaptation

The School Adaptation Flexibility Scale developed by Park (1998) was used. The subscales include interest in school, views on academic achievement, and compliance with school regulations, which are assessed by 22 questions. Each question is rated on a 4-point Likert-type scale, and some of the questions are reverse scored, with higher overall scores representing greater school maladaptation. The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale was .86.

Externalizing Behavior Problems

The Externalizing Behavior Problems scale from the Korean Youth Self-Report, derived from Achenbach’s (1991) Youth Self-Report and standardized by Oh, Ha, Lee, and Hong (2001), was used. This scale consists of 30 questions covering youth delinquency and aggressiveness. Each question is rated on a 3-point Likert-type scale ranging from never (0 points) to very often (2 points). Higher accumulated scores represent greater externalizing behavior problems. The Cronbach’s alpha was .90 for aggressiveness and .87 for delinquency.

Data Analyses

The present study used SPSS 17.0 and AMOS 7.0 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL) to conduct statistical analyses. First, descriptive statistics were reviewed to examine general tendencies across variables. Second, path coefficients were obtained for the mediation model that was designated as the study model. Third, indirect effect analyses using a bootstrapping method were conducted to verify the mediation effect. Bootstrapping is an analytical tool that uses data from the current sample as a “surrogate population” for approximating the sampling distribution of a statistic. This method verifies significant probabilities via bias-corrected percentiles. The advantage of bootstrapping is that it can use data with a nonnormal distribution or resolve normality problems (Bollen & Stine, 1992). Fourth, the goodness-of-fit of the model was assessed. To test goodness-of-fit, the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI) and comparative fit index (CFI) were used as relative fit indices, and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) was used as an absolute fit index because these indices are simple to use and can assess a study model without being influenced by sample size (Browne & Cudeck, 1993).

Results

Assumption of Normalcy

Descriptive statistics are shown in Table 1. Skewness and kurtosis values met the requirements for a normal distribution; therefore, the variables were used to verify the study model (West, Finch, & Curran, 1995).

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Variables (N = 121).

Variables		Minimum	Maximum	M	SD	Skewness	Kurtosis
Acculturative stress	Animosity	6	30	18.30	5.74	−.44	−.51
	Awareness of discrimination	3	15	9.58	3.38	−.07	−.87
	Sense of belonging	2	10	5.40	1.51	−.24	.19
School maladaptation	Interests in school	12	28	20.03	3.39	.63	−.12
	Academic views	9	20	14.22	2.38	.51	.55
	Norm compliance	16	40	26.88	7.14	.60	−.10
Externalizing behavior problems	Delinquency	11	28	15.1	3.9	1.33	.84
Externalizing behavior problems	Aggressiveness	19	48	26.3	6.7	1.14	.67

Confirmation of the Mediating Effect

A mediating effect is significant when an independent variable (X) has a significant effect on the mediator variable (M), which in turn affects the dependent variable (Y), and the indirect effect from the independent variable to the dependent variable through the mediating variable is statistically significant (MacKinnon, 2008). Full mediation occurs when the relationship between the independent variable and the dependent variable disappears with the inclusion of the mediating variable in the regression model. Partial mediation occurs when the relationship between the independent and dependent variable is attenuated with the inclusion of mediating variable in the regression model. In the present study, the total effect (c) was the effect of acculturative stress on externalizing behaviors. The indirect effect (ab) was the portion of the effect of acculturative stress explained by school maladjustment. The direct effect (c′) was the effect of acculturative stress on externalizing behavior problems not transmitted through the mediator. Table 2 shows that the total effect of acculturative stress on externalizing behaviors was significant (t = 2.949, p = .003), and the standardized indirect coefficient was .217. The direct path from acculturation stress to externalizing behaviors was nonsignificant when school maladaptation was included in the model, indicating full mediation.

Table 2.

Estimates From the Mediation Model.

	a	b	ab	c′	95% B-C of indirect effect
	a	b	ab	c′	Lower	Upper
Mediation model	.822***	.264***	.217**	.026	.113	.303

Note. Standardized paths are reported. a = X → M, b = M → Y. The total effect of acculturative stress on externalizing behavior problems (c) was .243**. B-C = bias-corrected percentile.

p < .01. ***p < .001.

The significance of the indirect effect was assessed using a bootstrapping method known to be effective in verifying mediating effects. The null hypothesis can be rejected when the confidence interval (CI) does not include 0 [95% CI]. As shown in Table 2, the CI for the indirect effect did not include 0 [.113, .303], which means that the null hypothesis could be rejected, and the indirect effect was statistically significant. These results indicate that acculturative stress felt by children from multicultural families with an immigrant mother leads to school maladaptation, which in turn influences externalizing behavior problems. A schematized mediation model is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Mediation model.

As a final step, the model’s goodness-of-fit was assessed. Table 3 shows that all fit indices were in acceptable ranges, suggesting that the mediation model had a relatively good fit to the data (Table 3): TLI = .976, CFI = .986, and RMSEA = .055. A goodness-of-fit coefficient is considered acceptable if the TLI and CFI > .90 and the RMSEA < .06 (Browne & Cudeck, 1993).

Table 3.

Goodness-of-Fit of the Mediation Model.

Model	χ²	df	TLI	CFI	RMSEA
Mediation model	23.23	17	.976	.986	.055

Note. df = degrees of freedom; TLI = Tucker–Lewis Index; CFI = comparative fit index; RMSEA = root mean square error of approximation.

Discussion

The present study confirmed that acculturative stress experienced by children of multicultural families with an immigrant mother exerts an indirect impact on externalizing behavior problems. Although acculturative stress did affect externalizing behaviors, this was not a direct effect—rather, behavioral problems were influenced via the mediating variable, maladaptation to school settings. Unlike previous studies, which investigated the relations between acculturative stress and various externalizing behaviors (e.g., aggressive behaviors and delinquency) without consideration of the potential reasons for the association (Milan & Keiley, 2000; Smokowski et al., 2009), the present study focused on the mechanisms through which acculturative stress affects externalizing behaviors, which will be helpful in developing interventions and preventing such behaviors from occurring. Our finding that acculturative stress influenced school maladaptation is in line with previous studies that have suggested that children of different cultural backgrounds are likely to experience a disadvantage in adapting to the school environment, have difficulties with peer relations, and show lagging academic performance (Wong et al., 2003). These results can be interpreted in two ways. First, children’s nonhomogeneous qualities are associated with acculturative stress, which may cause maladaptation to the school environment. For instance, physical differences, such as distinctive skin color or features, are related to alienation at school (An, 2008), and poor language ability is related to low academic achievement and can cause a lack of comprehension of school regulations and so lead to a failure to adhere to norms. Thus, the distinctive qualities of children from different cultural backgrounds render the process of acculturation difficult and stressful, making it even more difficult for children to adapt.

Another view to consider is that long-held traditionalist attitudes favorable to Korean homogeneity intensify acculturative stress for children of multicultural families with immigrant mothers; this may negatively affect school adaptation. Children share peer culture and group mentalities while learning to comply with social norms in the school setting. In this context, it makes sense that nonnative children would not adjust to the school environment if schools function as a place where distinctiveness is magnified and discrimination is intensified. The fact that children of different cultural backgrounds tend to move on to higher education at a notably lower rate indicates that acculturative stress at school is rising. Therefore, multilateral efforts and systemic changes are needed so that schools can be a supportive environment that contributes to lowering acculturative stress.

A relative inability to adapt to school life was found to affect externalizing behavior problems. This result confirms those of previous studies (Noh & Hong, 2006), which reported that children who failed to adapt to school life were relatively more violent than their peers and exhibited a strong tendency toward delinquency and antisocial behavior. Maladaptation to school life can be a precursor to behavioral problems. For instance, when children of nonmainstream cultural backgrounds do not adapt well to their school life, they may experience frustration and a sense of failure; this may lead to violence and delinquency as the outward expression of their negative emotions (McCabe, Clark, & Barnett, 1999). To prevent these issues from emerging, special interventions aimed at resolving and alleviating school maladaptation need to be implemented. In the current Korean school system, nonnative children are required to attend mainstream educational programs, in spite of their disparate abilities and often disadvantaged social standing. This forces these children to work even harder to adapt to the school environment. Therefore, it is important to provide specifically designed educational programs that address these children’s needs by providing relevant support systems, such as teachers with multicultural expertise.

Acculturative stress was observed to have an indirect effect on behavioral problems among children of multicultural families with immigrant mothers. This result implies the following. First, the extrinsic behavioral problems of children and adolescents of multicultural families experiencing acculturative stress should be addressed by interventions implemented in the school environment. Second, although some level of acculturative stress may be unavoidable, support systems can reduce the negative effects of acculturative stress, because acculturative stress, in and of itself, does not lead directly to behavioral problems.

To prevent and address behavioral problems affecting children of different cultural backgrounds, Korea needs to manage the indirect effects of acculturative stress. For this to occur, researchers need to identify additional mediating factors, as well as eradicating alienation and discrimination based on the “genetic purity” cultural mentality in the school setting.

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

The present study provided a case for the importance of implementing effective interventions to aid social adaptation and behavioral development among children of nonmainstream cultural backgrounds. This was accomplished by verifying the indirect impact of acculturative stress on externalizing behavior problems through school maladaptation.

The present study has some important methodological strengths. For instance, adopting a bootstrapping method, which is known to be effective in verifying indirect effects, helped overcome the limitations of mediational analyses based on multivariate data. However, it is important to note that causal relations cannot be drawn from the present data, as verification was accomplished through a cross-sectional approach. The limitations of self-reported data impose another restriction on interpretation of the results. In addition, although children of multicultural families with immigrant mothers were the participants, more work needs to be done to confirm if the present results would be observed in families with other diverse backgrounds. While the present study focuses on the relationship among variables through indirect effects, there may be limitations due to the lack of a control group. Moreover, it is necessary to consider the fact that various risk factors (such as financial difficulties or their parents’ satisfaction in their marriage) may interact in combination to cause cultural adaptation difficulties for the participants.

Future studies will ideally explore specific measures that are directly applicable to real school settings and geared toward helping children of multicultural families, such as the development of relevant educational content, teaching methods, and prevention programs targeting behavioral issues. The present study indicated that the indirect effects of acculturative stress were fully mediated by school maladaptation; however, since complete mediation does not entail that there are no additional factors (Rucker, Preacher, Tormala, & Petty, 2011), there is a need to explore additional mediating factors based on theory. Additional research will add to and improve on our mediation model to better understand adaptive acculturation among children of nonmainstream cultural background in a homogeneous-identity society.

Footnotes

Author’s Note

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2011-35C-C00010).

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