Parenting Satisfaction Among Homeless Caregivers

Abstract

This study explored the impact of parenting satisfaction and shelter comfort on depression and parenting stress among an urban sample of homeless caregivers residing in New York City. This research provides a new understanding of the impact that parenting satisfaction and shelter comfort has on depression and stress on homeless parents (n = 201). Linear regression results indicated that parenting satisfaction and shelter environment were the biggest influencers of homeless families experiencing more or less parenting stress. Black parents reported significantly lower rates of parenting stress than their non-Black counterparts. Results also indicated that, as parents become more satisfied with their parenting and feel more comfortable at the shelter, they experienced fewer depressive symptoms. We also found that when parents were satisfied with their parenting, they experienced less parenting stress. Study limitations and future research are also discussed.

Keywords

homelessness mothers parenting satisfaction depression shelter environment

Introduction

Homelessness among American families is a public health problem. Although the national rate of homelessness in the United States has declined (3%) in the last year, on any given night over half a million people are homeless, with families (parents and children) accounting for 35% of the homeless population (U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development [HUD], 2016). HUD notes that 60% of homeless families include children under the age of 18. In their 2015 study of the psychosocial status and life experiences of homeless parents residing in transitional housing, Holtrop, McNeil, and McWey (2015) note that few studies have examined the topic of parenting among homeless families, even though homeless families face a number of risks to their psychosocial health and well-being.

Compared with their housed counterparts, homeless families, which are generally headed by single females, often experience significant stressors related to unstable housing, including the lack of having a spouse or partner, lack of jobs to cover the cost of household needs and childcare, addiction, and violence exposure. These factors have been shown to be disruptive to the family unit including family functioning and the mental health of family members, particularly mothers (Marra et al., 2009; Nunez & Fox, 1999; Schultz-Krohn, 2004). Furthermore, compared with their housed counterparts, homeless families face a greater number of psychosocial risk factors including, but not limited to, mental illness, parenting stress and dissatisfaction, child maltreatment, and family separation (Bassuk et al., 1997; Coker et al., 2009; Cowal, Shinn, Weitzman, Stojanovic, & Labay, 2002; Gewirtz, DeGarmo, Plowman, August, & Realmuto, 2009; Holtrop et al., 2015).

Researchers have noted that stressors (both physical and psychological) associated with homelessness may impinge on the ability of caregivers to effectively meet the emotional and physical needs of their children. Difficulty adjusting to shelter environments due to lack of privacy, shelter rules, and disconnection from neighbors and supportive networks may increase parenting stress (David, Gelberg, & Suchman, 2012; Hausman & Hammen, 1993; Park, Metraux, Broadbar, & Culhane, 2004; Perlman, Cowan, Gewirtz, Haskett, & Stokes, 2012; Schindler & Coley, 2007). For instance, a seminal study completed by Koblinsky, Morgan, and Anderson (1997) noted that homeless mothers often provide less opportunities for learning and academic stimulation, less variety in social and cultural experiences, less warmth and affection, and a less positive physical environment for their children than their counterparts who are not homeless. Similarly, in their study of physical and psychological aggression, Park, Ostler, and Fertig (2015) found that homeless mothers were more physically and psychologically aggressive toward their children compared with their housed counterparts. Furthermore, the authors reported that maternal depression, parental stress, and children’s behavioral issues significantly contributed to adverse parenting behaviors among homeless mothers.

Overall, researchers have noted that depression among homeless caregivers, particularly mothers, adversely affects children (Mowbray, Bybee, Oyserman, Mcfarlane, & Bowersox, 2006; Oyserman, Bybee, & Mowbray, 2002). For instance, according to Mowbray et al. (2006), depressed mothers may be less responsive to their children than mothers in general. Furthermore, the authors note that these mothers are usually inconsistent, disorganized, and their interactions with their children can be negative, anxious, and critical. Symptoms of withdrawal, hopelessness, and guilt may further contribute to parenting difficulties (Oyserman et al., 2002). Poleshuck, Cerrito, Leshoure, Finocan-Kaag, and Kearney (2013) note that the prevalence of major depressive disorder tends to be higher in low-income women, and especially in women experiencing homelessness. In their study comparing the health and mental health status of homeless mothers in Worcester, Massachusetts, between 1993 and 2003, Weinreb, Buckner, Williams, and Nicholson (2006) found that homeless families were poorer, and female heads of household reported more physical health limitations, emotional distress, and mental health disorders in 2003 than in 1993.

Generally, researchers note that compared with housed families, homeless parents with a history of mental illness display less favorable caregiver–child interactions (Howard, Cartwright, & Barajas, 2009). Parental mental health has consistently been associated with child adjustment among homeless and formerly homeless families, with poorer mental health status predicting greater child behavior problems (Bassuk et al., 1997; Gewirtz et al., 2009). However, as with much of the research on homeless families, these studies were completed over a decade ago and highlight the need for updated research on the challenges facing this vulnerable population.

Extensive research has outlined the strong correlation between homelessness, parenting stress, and depression. To our knowledge, no study to date has explored the impact of parenting satisfaction (feeling effective with your parenting skills) and shelter comfort (feeling comfortable in current shelter environment) on depression and parenting stress among homeless caregivers. Several theories have noted the importance of [high] quality parenting by primary caregivers (Armstrong, Birnie-Lefcovitch, & Ungar, 2005). For instance, Wyman, Sandler, Wolchik, and Nelson (2000) ascertained parental supervision, consistent structure and discipline, positive parental attitudes, and active involvement in their child or children’s life, as well as clear family communication patterns are key dimensions of [high?] quality parenting.

Thus, the purpose of this study is to explore the impact of parenting satisfaction and shelter comfort on depression and parenting stress among an urban sample of homeless caregivers. We hypothesized a direct relationship exists between independent variables of parenting experiences and shelter comfort with dependent variables of depression and parenting stress. We also hypothesized that a direct association exists between the independent variable of feeling effective with your parenting behaviors, and dependent variables of depression and parenting stress.

Method

The data analyzed in this study were drawn from the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Outreach for Parents and Early adolescents (HOPE) Family Program (McKay et al., 2010). This was a family-based HIV and drug abuse prevention program that assessed early adolescent youth outcomes, adult caregiver outcomes, and family-level outcomes. The program targeted pre- and early adolescent homeless youth (aged 11-14 years) who resided in shelters with their caregivers between 2007 and 2010 in New York City. Convenience sampling was used to recruit participants from 10 of the 70 Tier II shelters throughout five New York City boroughs. Tier II shelters are transitional residential domestic violence programs that are regulated by the New York State Office of Temporary and Disability Assistance. Tier II shelters provide a much needed extension of shelter services for families already residing in domestic violence emergency shelters. When a length of stay reaches the mandated maximum of 180 days, domestic violence survivors may be placed into transitional shelters where they receive ongoing support and services while working to obtain safe permanent housing and reintegrate in the community (Housing New York, 2018).

The study design enabled investigators to obtain data about basic trends in homeless families living together in shelters. Overall, 248 youth and their caregivers participated in either the HOPE Family Program (a multifamily group intervention) or health education based on the random assignment of the 10 family shelters involved. The New York University Institutional Review Board approved this study. For the purposes of this study, we analyzed the responses of 201 parents who reported on the variables described below.

Measures

Parenting Experiences (Independent Variables)

To measure respondents’ overall experience of parenting, we used a 10-item scale of parenting satisfaction. This tapped into both feelings of fulfillment in parenting behaviors (sample item: “Most times I feel that my child does not like me and does not want to be close to me.” [reverse-scored]), as well as competence and self-efficacy in one’s parenting capacity (sample item: “I feel that I am a very good parent.”). Responses were coded on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 4 = Strongly agree. This scale showed evidence of acceptable internal reliability among this sample (α = .77). The reliability was substantially higher for the full scale than using subdomains of parenting satisfaction. This suggests that respondents’ overall evaluations of their parenting experience tend to be coherent across multiple domains. In addition, we also control for differences between respondents based on how many kids are currently living with them in the shelter. Most respondents (72%) reported that none of their children were currently living with them (coded 0). The remaining responses were divided among those with one to two kids at the shelter (15%, coded 1) and parents with three or more kids living with them (13%, coded 2).

Shelter Environment (Independent Variables)

Respondents’ comfort in the shelter environment was measured by a series of 4 items related to feelings of camaraderie, resources available, shelter rules, and shelter safety: (1) Do you feel safe at the shelter? (2) Are there things for people to do at the shelter? (3) Are there things for families to do together at the shelter? (4) Does the staff at the shelter help you and your family? The answer categories of all items were dichotomous (0 = no/1 = yes). These items were combined into a single measure by taking the average of all scores (range = 0-1). This scale showed adequate internal reliability among this sample (α = .69).

First time in shelter was a dichotomous variable that was measured with the item, “Is this your first time staying in a shelter?” The answer categories were no (0)/yes (1). We measured length of shelter stay by combining respondents’ self-reported length of stay in the current shelter, where they were sampled, and any previous shelter experiences in the past year. Response categories ranged from 1 = Less than a month to 4 = 12 months or longer.

Parenting Stress (Dependent Variable)

To measure participants’ experience of parenting-related stress, we used a six-item scale inquiring about internal experiences of parenting stress as well as tension in parent–child relationships (sample item: “I feel trapped by my responsibilities as a parent.”). Reponses were coded on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = Strongly disagree to 4 = Strongly agree. This scale showed evidence of strong internal reliability among this sample (α = .84).

Caregiver Depression (Dependent Variable)

Caregiver mental health was measured using the Brief Symptom Inventory (BSI; Derogatis, 1993). This is a measure intended for adult subjects aged 17 and older. Participants rated symptoms experienced during the past week on a 5-point Likert-type scale (i.e., 1 representing not at all to 5 representing extremely). For this study, the focus was on the depression subscale, which consists of six questions related to areas including “thoughts of ending your life,” “feeling no interest in things,” and “feeling hopeless about the future.” The depression subscale of the Brief Symptom Inventory has good test–retest reliability (.84) and internal consistency (α = .85; Derogatis, 1993).

Demographics

Two demographic variables were examined for potential differences in respondents’ experiences of family homelessness based on gender and race/ethnicity. Gender was measured dichotomously (1 = male, 2 = female). The sample was predominantly female (91.4%). The small number of male respondents (n = 18, 8.6%) makes it difficult to compare gender differences among this sample. Although gender was tested as an independent control variable in regression models, it was not significant and thus we report the more parsimonious models that exclude gender. As well, race/ethnicity was assessed using two separate items: “Are you Hispanic or Latino[/a]?” (0 = no, 1 = yes); “Are you Black?” (0 = no, 1 = yes). Approximately half of the sample identified as either Black (49.3%) or Hispanic/Latino/a (47.4%), with 6.2% of respondents identifying as both Black and Hispanic/Latino/a.

Analysis

To examine relationships between parenting experience, shelter environment, and mental health among homeless caregivers, we use two linear regression models with ordinary least squares estimators. These models test the relative association of parenting satisfaction, shelter comfort, first-time shelter use, length of shelter stay, number of kids living with caregivers, and race/ethnicity on the dependent variables: parenting stress and depression. Descriptive statistics for study variables are summarized in Table 1, and correlations between continuous measures (parenting stress, depression, parenting satisfaction, shelter comfort, and length of shelter stay) are presented in Table 2. No issues of multicollinearity were detected; variance inflation factor scores ranged from 1.03 to 2.01 for all independent variables.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics for Study Variables (N = 201).

Continuous variables	M	SD
Dependent variables
Parenting stress^a	2.12	0.74
Depression^b	1.84	0.98
Independent variables
Parent satisfaction^a	3.08	0.55
Shelter comfort^c	0.72	0.32
Length of shelter stay^a	2.41	1.04
Categorical variables	n	%
Independent variables
First-time in shelter
No	77	0.41
Yes	111	0.59
Number of kids in shelter
0	135	0.72
1-2	28	0.15
3+	24	0.13
Gender
Male	18	8.6
Female	191	91.4
Black
No	106	50.7
Yes	103	49.3
Hispanic/Latino/a
No	110	52.6
Yes	99	47.4

Theoretical range: 1-4. ^bTheoretical range: 1-5. ^cTheoretical range: 0-1.

Table 2.

Correlations Between Continuous Variables (N = 188).

Variables	1	2	3	4	5
1. Parenting stress	—
2. Depression	.33***	—
3. Parenting satisfaction	−.63***	−.34***	—
4. Shelter comfort	−.11	−.20**	.06	—
5. Length of shelter stay	.20**	.10	−.11	−.20**	—

p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Results

Respondents’ scores on both depression and parenting stress scales demonstrate evidence of both prevalence and risk for mental health difficulties among this sample. On a scale from 1 to 4, the average parenting stress score was 2.12 (SD = 0.74). Furthermore, over half the sample (52.7%) reported scores over the midpoint (2). With respect to depression, on a 1 to 5 scale, the average respondent reported a score of 1.84 (SD = 0.98). One in five respondents (19.7%) indicated depressive symptoms over the midpoint score (2.5).

The model using parenting experience, shelter environment, and race/ethnicity together estimated 45.3% of the variance in respondents’ parental stress, F(8, 192) = 19.84, p < .001 (Table 3). Parenting satisfaction was negatively associated with parenting stress, β = −.60, p < .001. This variable was the strongest predictor in the model. This suggests that after controlling for the impact of the shelter environment, positive feelings of parenting satisfaction were associated with less stressful experiences. As well, the length of shelter stay was positively associated with parenting stress, β = .14, p = .015. This suggests that the persistence of residential instability among caregivers is associated with a more acute experience of parenting stress. Finally, race/ethnicity was associated with parenting stress, with Black respondents reporting significantly lower rates of parenting stress than their non-Black counterparts, β = −.21, p = .006. Comfort in the shelter, first-time shelter use, and the number of children living with respondents in the shelter were not significantly associated with parenting stress.

Table 3.

Linear Regression With Ordinary Least Squares Estimators Testing the Relationship Between Parenting Experiences, Shelter Environment, Parenting Stress, and Depression.

Independent variables	Parenting stress		Depression
Independent variables	B (SE)	β	B (SE)	β
Parenting satisfaction	−0.81 (0.07)	−.60***	−0.53 (0.12)	−.30***
Shelter comfort	−0.15 (0.13)	−.06	−0.53 (0.21)	−.17**
First-time in shelter (ref. = no)	0.00 (0.09)	.00	−0.02 (0.13)	−.01
Length of shelter stay	0.10 (0.04)	.14*	0.05 (0.06)	.05
Kids in shelter (ref. = none)
1-2	−0.12 (0.12)	−.06	−0.21 (0.18)	−.08
3 or more	0.02 (0.12)	.01	0.34 (0.19)	.12⁺
Race/ethnicity
Hispanic/Latino/a (ref. no)	−0.06 (0.11)	−.04	0.16 (0.18)	.08
Black (ref. no)	−0.31 (0.11)	−.21**	−0.29 (0.18)	−.15
Model summary
Constant	4.68*** (0.30)		3.80*** (0.48)
R ²	.453		.207
F(df = 8, 192)	19.84***		6.29***

Note. Ref. = reference category.

p < .10. *p < .05. **p ⩽ .01. ***p < .001.

The regression model predicting depression scores estimated 20.7% of variance in respondents’ scores, F(8, 192) = 6.29, p < .001. As in the model predicting parenting stress, parenting satisfaction was negatively associated with depression scores, β = −.30, p < .001. That is, feeling more fulfilled and competent as a parent was associated with lower rates of depression among homeless caregivers. Unlike parenting stress, comfort in the shelter negatively predicted depression, β = −.14, p < .05. Furthermore, respondents with three or more children living with them in the shelter reported marginally significantly higher depression than those whose child(ren) were living elsewhere, β = .12, p = .075. The remaining predictors (first-time shelter use, length of shelter stay, having one to two kids in the shelter compared to none, and race/ethnicity) did not predict depression scores.

Discussion

As noted earlier, the impact of parenting satisfaction and shelter comfort on depression and parenting stress among homeless parents to our knowledge is nascent in exploration. This research provides more information about the impact that parenting satisfaction and shelter comfort may have on depression and stress on homeless parents. Given the precarious nature of homelessness, it is unsurprising that we found that half of the sample reported high levels of stress; moreover, 20% of the sample reported experiencing clinical levels of depression. Unstable housing may negatively affect the functioning of homeless parents by detracting from their ability to engage their children and cope with the stress of parenting. More specifically, the crisis of homelessness may hinder the ability of parents to provide psychosocial, physical, and emotional care to their children.

Our first hypothesis testing indicated that parenting satisfaction and shelter environment were the biggest influencers of homeless families experiencing more or less parenting stress. As families stayed longer in the shelter, parents experienced higher levels of stress. While shelters and support services attempt to preserve the integrity of homeless families, shelter workers are often uninformed about the daily functioning of the family and its members. Thus, the inability to maintain or even sustain families’ activities, traditions, and customs often become another source of stress for families. This may make it extremely difficult, if not impossible, for families to maintain familiar routines (Choi & Snyder, 1999; DeOllos, 1997; Schultz-Krohn, 2004). A Rapid Re-Housing and Housing First approach to reduce the length of stay families experience in shelter may be an effective policy intervention (HUD, 2012).

Nevertheless, homeless parents who were satisfied with their parenting reported feeling less stress. According to Wyman et al. (2000), the key dimensions of quality parenting include the following: (1) parental supervision, (2) consistent structure and discipline, (3) positive parental attitudes, (4) active involvement in the child or children’s life, and (5) family communication pattern. All of these dimensions can occur regardless of the physical location/environment of the parent and child or children.

As homeless families receive a variety of services from shelter workers, these families may benefit from mental health interventions that address the nuances of parenting dynamics that are unique to homeless families. These interventions could focus on skill building, enhancing family’s support networks, sharing of responsibilities among parents residing at the shelter, troubleshooting persistent problems affecting homeless families at the shelter, stress management, and increasing individual parent’s sense of self-efficacy and satisfaction in their parenting. These foci can help families not only address mental health concerns, such as decreasing stress and treating depressive symptoms, but also develop greater skills and resilience in addressing long-term and structural barriers to securing a home.

Our second hypothesis testing indicated that, as parents become more satisfied with their parenting and feel more comfortable at the shelter, they experienced less depressive symptoms. We also found that when parents were satisfied with their parenting they experienced less parenting stress. These findings are consistent with parenting literature that suggests that prosocial environments and positive feelings about parenting improve the mental state of parents (Turner & Sanders, 2006). As parents feel more confident and satisfied in their parenting, they will increase the amount of engagement with their children, engage their children positively, and discipline their children using nonviolent techniques (Sanders, 1999). These parenting practices create interactions between parents and children that are calm, kind, and positive, thereby reducing stress (Turner & Sanders, 2006). These positive traits benefit homeless parents who experience acute levels of stress and depression (Aunola, Ruusunen, Viljaranta, & Nurmi, 2015) attributable to their precarious position of parenting children within the context of shelter living. Parenting can be a stressful experience for any one, but it is more complicated for homeless parents who must do so while experiencing persistent residential instability. One way to reduce mental health risk among homeless parents could be the development and/or adoption of wide-scale policies and programs that address homelessness and residential instability. For example, one policy recommendation could be that shelter administrators assign a higher priority to facilitating services to families with three or more children living with them as this group reported significantly higher depression than those whose children were living elsewhere.

The present study included some limitations. First, we measured parenting satisfaction without considering the age of the children. To what degree do parents’ reporting of their satisfaction relates to the developmental stage of their child or children? Babies, toddlers, and young children require more attention, time, and care than older children and teenagers do. Parenting satisfaction may be a function of the extent to which parents are able to meet their children’s needs (Perlman et al., 2012). Homeless parents may feel less satisfied with their parenting because they are dealing with the stress of managing homelessness, while simultaneously caring for babies, toddlers, and young children. Additionally, as noted by previous research, homeless parents may possess low self-efficacy in their overall life experience in relation to their inability to secure stable housing (Gorzka, 1999). Compounding these feelings further may be their inability and difficulty in securing the multiple items needed on a daily basis to care for babies, toddlers, and young children.

Second, we conducted a cross-sectional study, making it unacceptable to infer causality. It is possible that other factors, such as number of times of homelessness or the extent of social services received, may influence depressive and parental stress symptoms that we did not account. Related, because this study focused on the experiences of homeless parents, the findings do not address the variation in mental health risk that are inherent in the instability and insecurity that lead to homelessness, including the potentially chronic impacts of these factors over time. These variables may mediate the relationships, which we did not account. Previous research suggests that both parents and children encountering negative life events experience high levels of distress related to those negative events (Aunola et al., 2015).

Third, we did not consider the role that cultural expectations may play among the experiences of parents as it relates to their satisfaction. A future study using qualitative methods may benefit from an in-depth analysis regarding how attitudes and expectations specific to parent’s culture factor in parenting satisfaction. Related, further research might expand on the findings that Black respondents reported lower rates of parenting stress than other respondents. Our results related to race were limited by the measurements included in the survey instrument. Studies using qualitative methods could identify and compare community-level and cultural factors relevant to the experiences of homelessness in multiple communities of color.

Given the design of this research study, we suggest that future research studies include pre- and post-measures to survey families residing in shelters who receive shelter services. In so doing, researchers may explore the depth of change in the overall experiences of depression, distress, shelter environment, parenting stress, and parenting satisfaction among families residing in shelters. Future research could explore differences within these experiences based on the age of children, which may differ depending on the child’s development and degree of meeting certain developmental milestones (e.g., crawling, walking, eating, etc.).

Overall, the results of the present study suggest that, despite the complexity that homelessness brings to families, parents still can feel satisfied in their parenting and that this satisfaction can decrease their depressive symptoms. Homelessness is stressful; thus, homeless parents experience both depression and stress. Furthermore, mental health interventions should focus on both reducing stress and depressive symptoms. This twofold approach may enhance parents’ overall feelings of parenting. As part of any shelter services, the primary goal is to help parents in securing stable housing. Nevertheless, creating comfortable conditions at the shelter may help homeless families meet their housing needs in addition to helping parents meet their children’s parenting needs. Securing housing quickly and receiving mental health services for stress and for depression would create robust shelter services that benefit homeless families.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Kendra P. DeLoach McCutcheon

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