The Indirect Effects of Police Racial Bias on African American Families

Abstract

This qualitative study investigated the personal experiences of police racial bias and brutality among 18 African-American parents, the effect these experiences have had on them, how they discuss such incidents with their children, and which sources of strength the rely on during difficult times. Results revealed that both the participants and some of their children had endured negative encounters with law enforcement, and most of them suffered mental health consequences as a result, including fear, anger, and chronic stress. Most of the participants reported engaging in various forms of preparation for bias, including preparation for interaction with the police. For many, this was in order to ensure their children’s survival. Despite the negative and sometimes traumatic experiences, participants indicated that they found strength primarily in their faith and their families. Implications of these findings are discussed.

Keywords

police racial bias police brutality African Americans mental health outcomes preparation for bias

Recent statistics show that in the United States, police were responsible for over 4,000 deaths between 2013 and 2016 (Bor et al., 2018). More than 1,000 of those killed were African Americans, and of those, 303 (29%) were unarmed. In addition, an FBI supplemental homicide report revealed that from 1980 to 2012, police officers have been linked to over 12,000 deaths (Gabrielson et al., 2014). In general, African Americans are three times more likely to be killed by the police compared to any other racial group, and an analysis by The Guardian found that 32% of African Americans killed by police in 2015 were unarmed (Swaine et al., 2015). In addition to the sufferings of the victims and their families, police killings of unarmed African Americans can also have a spillover effects on the mental health of individuals not directly related to the deaths or to the individuals involved (Bor et al., 2018).

Historically, African Americans in the United States have experienced infinite forms of oppression and repression that stem from slavery (Archbold, 2012). Despite efforts to eradicate racial disparities and move towards a post-racial society in which equality is the norm, this has not yet become a reality. African Americans still face both overt and covert discrimination. Some of these discriminatory practices are imparted by law enforcement, including racial profiling, hyper-surveillance, over-patrolling, and violent tactics by police officers (Chaney & Robertson, 2013; Rembert et al., 2016; Sewell et al., 2016). These practices have led to constrained and antagonistic relationships between law enforcement and African-American communities, ultimately resulting in physical, social, and mental health challenges for individuals in these communities.

Police racial bias includes racial profiling of drivers, prejudiced actions of police officers, and discrimination against minorities and their neighborhoods (Weitzer & Tuch, 2005). In the United States, African-American men are more likely to be targeted, profiled, incriminated, investigated, unjustly committed, harshly sentenced, and imprisoned for crimes than any other group (Carson, 2014). In addition, African Americans are more likely to be victims of police brutality, to be stopped for “Driving While Black,” and to underreport the recurrence of being pulled over due to heightened social desirability influence (Kane & White, 2009; Tomaskovic-Devey et al., 2006). Finally, biased beliefs among police officers have led to delayed response time, decreased police services, officer misconduct, and unjustifiable use of physical and deadly force (Kane & White, 2009).

Research has shown that many Caucasians justify police brutality towards African Americans based on a belief that when African Americans are involved with the criminal justice system, they deserve harsh treatment (Chaney & Robertson, 2014; Feagin, 2014). According to Chaney and Robertson (2014) the frequent penalizing of African Americans by Caucasians in powerful positions establishes an environment in which the inequitable treatment of African Americans is accepted, supported, and justified.

Sadly, African-American children are not exempt from police brutality either. They are often viewed as being less innocent than their Caucasian peers, more likely to be misjudged for being older and perceived to be guilty, and more likely to become victims of police brutality if they are accused of participating in a crime (Goff et al., 2014). A report by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services and U.S. Department of Education (2014) showed that while African-American children only made up 8% of the student population, 40% of them received one or more out-of-school suspensions, and they accounted for 32% of children arrested and 40% of all children and youth in residential homes in the juvenile justice system.

Unfortunately, the epidemic of racial discrimination, including racial profiling and police violence against African Americans, continues largely due to the lack of personal responsibility by the perpetrators, who often refute the notion of race being a factor in their behavior. Born out of the Civil Rights Movement, an ideology of colorblindness began permeating American society with the intent to disregard race in order to promote equality and eliminate racism (Rosenthal & Levy, 2010; Ryan et al., 2007). Many Caucasian Americans, including police officers, perceive themselves as normal, moral, and believers of equality, which discredits beliefs of discrimination or prejudice (Sue, 2004). However, the belief in this ideology only reinforces and revives modern systemic racial inequality by denying its existence (Bonilla-Silva, 2014).

Race-related Trauma and Mental Health Issues among African Americans

Racism is often experienced as a type of trauma and emotional abuse for racial and ethnic minorities due to it involving rejecting, negative, and humiliating societal directives that weaken self-esteem (Franklin et al., 2006). Routinely, ethnic minorities are faced with the task of coping with both covert and overt phenomena of racism on individual, cultural, and institutional levels. Covert and overt methods of daily racism in the lives of people of color involve ethnocentrism, harassment, degradation, and institutionalized traditions that hinder their aspirations and goals. These perpetual reminders weaken the psyche, and over time can they develop into an accumulative experience of psychological trauma and emotional debility. The inability to resolve the trauma related dismay can lead to race-related stress, depression, chronic anger, or substance abuse (Franklin, 2004).

A report from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2001) indicated that discrimination and racism negatively affects the health of African Americans in multiple ways: (a) internalization of negative racial stereotypes that damages their self-worth; (b) effects of chronic stressors of living in poverty due to historical and institutional racism; and (c) effects of chronic or discrete stressors due to encounters of discrimination and racism. Franklin et al. (2006) contended that it is more precise to evaluate the impact of racism as cognitive and emotional harm than as a mental disorder due to the impact of racism stemming from the sociocultural environment, not from an anomaly that exists within the individual.

African American Parental Racial Socialization

A primary responsibility for parents is preparing their children to thrive in society. For many African-American parents, this responsibility includes a type of racial socialization that prepares their children to survive in a prejudiced environment (Burt et al., 2012). Parental racial socialization refers to the implied, straightforward, intentional, and unintentional ways in which parents’ views and behaviors communicate beliefs about race to their children (Hughes, 2003). It involves exposure to cultural traditions and objects, promotion of pride in and knowledge about culture and heritage, dialogue on discrimination and coping mechanisms, and strategies for being successful in mainstream society. Although current evidence shows that most African-American parents engage in racial socialization, the content and frequency of the messages vary (Brown et al., 2007). A common strategy among African-American parents is preparation for bias, which involves parents’ attempts to promote their children’s consciousness of discrimination and prepare them to develop coping mechanisms (Hughes & Chen, 1999). Research on African-American and Hispanic youth has found that a moderate (but not high) amount of preparation for bias can buffer some of the negative effects of discrimination and prejudice (Harris-Britt et al., 2007; Umaña-Taylor et al., 2014).

“The Talk”

For African-American parents, a distinct but often unspoken stressor is that their children will be assigned different consequences for exhibiting the same behaviors as children of other racial backgrounds and that they may not possess the power or ability to prevent their children from suffering such consequences (Amber, 2013). Because of this reality, many African-American parents feel compelled to engage in an unpleasant aspect of racial socialization, which is commonly known as “The Talk” (Burnett, 2012). This conversation involves preparing young African Americans, specifically boys, for potential encounters with police officers and other authoritative figures. It involves warnings of how they may be perceived by the police because of their skin color, as well as guidelines for how to behave in the presence of police in order to mitigate potential harm. The fear that encounters with the police could potentially have lethal outcomes is often the driving force behind these conversations. Some believe that avoiding it is neglectful because it could make the children more vulnerable to potential harm. Thus, the main goal of “The Talk” is survival, as well as learning how to live in a society fraught with systemic racism and discrimination.

The Present Study

In light of continued racial discrimination in the United States, and recent studies showing significant mental health effects on African Americans, the purpose of the present study was to identify the impact that police racial bias and brutality towards unarmed African Americans have on African-American families with minor children as a whole. Specifically, the study investigated (a) how experiences with police racial bias and brutality impact their mental health, (b) how they discuss racism and police racial bias with their children, and (c) what sources of strength the families rely on to deal with such experiences and exposures.

Method

The methodological approach that was utilized for this study was phenomenology. A phenomenological approach aims to examine, interpret, and evaluate the meaning of the lived experiences of an individual, as well as identifying similarities and common themes (Groenewald, 2004; Patton, 2002). It allows researchers to collect information from participants who have experienced a specific phenomenon and establish a combined narrative of the significance of the experience for all participants.

Participants

A total of 18 African-American individuals participated. They were all parents or guardians of one or more children between the ages of 5 years and 17 years. Nine of the participants were female. Participants ranged in age from 33 years to 59 years. The educational background of the participants ranged from high school diploma or GED to college graduates, and their household income ranged from less than $20,000 to $150,000 or more. Participants were recruited from support groups serving victims of police brutality, student listservs, and various professional contacts via printed flyers or email solicitation. Due to the sensitive nature of the study, snowball sampling was also used to increase the participant pool.

Instruments and Data Collection

Demographic questionnaire. Participants completed a basic demographic questionnaire prior to taking part in the interview. This included basic information about their age, gender, marital status, educational background, household income, and number of children.

Audio-recorded interview. A face-to-face, semi-structured interview was conducted with each participant. The interviews were audio recorded. The interview questions were centered around the study’s three main research questions. Participants were asked to talk about their personal experiences with police officers and law enforcement, experiences with police racial bias or brutality, their feelings on these subjects, how their experiences have influenced their family, whether and how they discuss these topics with their children, and what they believe are their families’ sources of strength.

Field notes. While conducting interviews, field notes were used to document the setting of the interview, as well as the respondent’s facial expression and body language as each question was answered. At the conclusion of each interview, journal entries were used to describe the entire experience.

Interview Procedures

Participant interviews were scheduled based on each participant’s preference for a time and location. All interviews were conducted in private, quiet rooms. Informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to administering the demographic questionnaire and conducting the interview. All participants were also given a list of counseling resources, should they desire to seek professional help due to emotional discomfort. Each interview was audio recorded and later transcribed word for word. A semi-structured interview guide was used, ensuring that each topic was addressed, while also giving the participants freedom to provide in-depth answers regarding their experiences and perceptions. Follow-up questions were used to prompt further explanations or clarifications.

Results

All interviews were transcribed and reviewed multiple times prior to any data coding and analysis taking place. Prior to and during data analysis, member checking was used to clarify participant responses and the meanings of such. Two cycles of coding were used. The first cycle coding was used to break down the data into discrete pieces representing concepts, descriptions, experiences, and emotions. The second cycle coding involved reorganization of the data bits, comparison for similarities and differences, and identifying categories. Finally, a review and comparison of all the codes resulted in various themes emerging from the codes. In addition to revealing participants’ previous experiences with racial bias and brutality, analysis of the data led to multiple themes surrounding mental health consequences, racial socialization practices, and sources of strength, as described further.

Experiences with Racial Bias and Police Brutality

Initial review of the data revealed that many of the participants had experienced general racial bias in addition to racial profiling and bias from police officers. Some also reported that they or a close friend or family member had experienced police brutality. The majority of these negative encounters were with white police officers, although a few mentioned negative experiences with black police officers as well. Specific experiences included being racially profiled, unlawfully searched, verbally and physically assaulted, and falsely accused and arrested.
One time I was coming to work and I had just exited off the freeway, and there was this police officer at the light. He looked over there at me, and he made a U-turn and chased me back to my job and turned his lights on. I asked him why did he pull me over. He said just to check. I was just on my way to work, and I really didn’t understand why he pulled me over.

I was leaving from work and the police pulled me over. And the first thing he did was took out his weapon and told me to get out the car and get on the ground. And I asked him why. He told me in those words that “we don’t know what you n****** are doing.” So that was one of the most horrific incidents that happened with me and a law enforcement officer.
One person reported being a passenger in a car while his white friend was driving. Rather than asking the white driver for identification, the officers went to the passenger side and asked him for his identification.
When the police come to the car, they supposed to ask the driver of the vehicle for identification. We get stopped by the police and they come on my side, and they ask me for all my information. Now, I didn’t have any identification, but I was still under arrest for failure to ID ‘cause I wasn’t from the state.
Several people indicated that they or their children had been asked to leave a neighborhood pool because the guards assumed they did not belong there. Some participants also reported stories of racial profiling by store and neighborhood security personnel. One person indicated that when going to the bank, the security guard treats him differently based on his attire.
There’s a security guard at the desk, and anytime I go in with a ball cap and a jogging suit, he gets up out of his chair and he stands up and he’s watching me the whole time. Few weeks ago I went in there with a suit on. He didn’t even realize I was the same guy. And he never got out of that chair.
Several participants reported having experienced or been witness to police brutality, including being kicked, hit, or slammed to the ground even when they were not engaging in any illegal or suspicious activity. One woman told a story about her son being approached by police while standing outside his grandmother’s house. Despite telling them it was his grandmother’s house, they assumed he was trespassing, and when he ran into the house they followed him, caught him, and beat him. Another woman told a story about her husband sitting in the car outside his sister’s house and talking on the phone in a loud voice, and a neighbor called the police on him reporting a threat.
He was on the phone. A neighbor called the police and said they saw a man outside waiving a gun. He wasn’t waiving no gun at nobody. Police came up…about four, five police cars. Only one Black and the rest of them white. They cursed by husband out. They slammed him to the ground. They cursed me out. They could have killed him if it wasn’t for his sister running downstairs and jumping in front of her brother. They were just like “well what did you do with the gun? Where did you throw it at?” He was like “What gun?” Come to find out it was a lady that don’t like Black people in the apartment complex and decided to call, just to be mean.

Differences based on gender and SES

While the majority of participants reported negative encounters with law enforcement, there were noteworthy differences based on gender and socioeconomic status (SES). Female participants reported no personal experience with police brutality, but several had experienced general racial profiling. The more severe forms of harassment and brutality were reported by the male participants. Similarly, participants of lower SES tended to report more frequent and severe discrimination and violent encounters. One participant commented that it was not always police going after black people, but police going after poor people:
For me it was never like a racial thing. It was just an ‘us versus them’ thing. And a big part of that is because of the neighborhoods that I was raised in. It was more poverty than prosperity. And when you have poverty stricken neighborhoods, you have cops that deal with poverty stricken individuals and people who are thinking that way. And so I guess in playing ‘the game’ everybody tryna win, whether it be the cops or the criminals. So I was probably a by-product of that more than anything.

Experiences with black police officers

Most participants reported that their negative encounters were with white police officers, but two talked about experiences with black police officers. These were mostly in situations where the participants lived in majority-black communities.
For me, it’s a [double] edged sword. When I was growing up, and when I had most of those experiences with the police, it was in New Orleans. The majority of the police force was Black, that I encountered for the most part. So anything that I felt, any wrongdoings that I felt that I’ve gotten from a cop, was always from a Black cop.

It was a conflict for me to see the way that brother, the way he treated us, with being a Black male and in his position. The way he treated us was very different from, you know, I’ve grown up to understand how Black folks supposed to take care of Black folks.
These experiences impacted the participants in various ways, and the following segments focus on how they have impacted their mental health, the way they discuss racial bias and discrimination with their children, and the sources of strength they rely on.

Mental Health Consequences

Most participants indicated that their mental health has been negatively impacted due to their direct and indirect experiences with police racial bias. Most commonly, the mental health impact centered around Fear, Anger, and Stress. Some also indicated that personal experiences and news coverage of police brutality against African Americans left them with Feelings of Worthlessness.

Fear. Many participants talked about the constant fear and worry they live with due to past experiences and current racial tensions. For some, the fear mainly surrounds police interactions:
Every time I get stopped or see a police, I get nervous ‘cause I never know what their reaction will be. I’m in fear of police because of what I have seen and experienced.

Everything that I see on social media. I mean, I’m scared on a daily basis.
Some talked about living in fear on a daily basis due to past experiences with discrimination in their neighborhoods or at work. Others were mainly worried about what might happen to their children:
I’m afraid as a Black parent for my Black children because I see that the system is just not working for a lot of Black people. It’s just not fair the way that they’re treated. So I’m stressed because I wonder what’s gonna happen to…. Could it be one of my children that’s next?

What’s going on in this world right now with the police brutality against young Black men, I mean it’s scary. I’m always worried about him.
Anger. Several participants talked about being angry, and their anger was focused on the injustice experienced by themselves and others, the fact that innocent black men have died at the hands of police officers, the lack of reprimands given to the officers who have engaged in aggressive or lethal acts against Black people, and the lack of policy changes to rectify the injustices. One woman got so angry and upset that she had to pause the interview for a while in order to calm herself down:
Like we just can’t say anything and just have a right to voice our opinion. We gotta keep our mouth shut. This is what, 2018? And they wanna treat us like back in the 30s and slavery time. Like we can’t say anything, unless you gon’ get lynched. I’m about to get pissed. I’m really about to get pissed. I think I need to stop. I’m about to go at it.
Stress. For some participants, the mental health impact manifested itself in the daily stress they feel from worrying about the potential bias and discrimination they or their family members might face.
It can really be a stressful situation when you’re done an unjust. So that means you’re riding to work and you’re thinking about this unjust and stress comes up on you.

The impact it has on an African American family and what we go to sleep with on our brains all the time.
Feelings of worthlessness. For some, their negative encounters with biased police officers have left them feeling devalued and worthless, and several mentioned that they felt no-one cares about their well-being:
It really made me feel like I was being degraded, or I didn’t even count in the United States of America. And that’s the way they try to kill your morals and your beliefs.

You felt less, you know. Less of a person. That nobody really cares.
A few participants reported that although they had either direct or indirect interactions with the police, their mental health was not impacted. They were aware of other people’s feelings and experiences and did not invalidate those, but they were adamant not to give the police anymore control of their lives. On the other hand, one mother indicated that she has a great relationship with the police officers in her area and never experienced any negative, racially motivated, or biased encounters when interacting with them. She reported that she had at times summoned the police to her home to assist with her rebellious teens. Her friend’s children had experienced negative interactions with the police, but she indicated this has not impacted her because she perceived the officers’ actions to be justified based on the children’s poor choices:
I know the whole story with my friend’s children. I feel like the cops are justifiable for what they do. My friend’s children are negative kids. So I mean, I really don’t care when they call me and tell me what they did to the kids. Good, they should have done something to them long time ago. I believe right is right and wrong is wrong.

Parent–Child Discussions about Racism, Police Racial Bias, and Brutality

Participants were asked if and how they discuss racism, police racial bias, and brutality towards African Americans with their children, and the themes that emerged were Preparation for Bias, Necessity of “The Talk,” and Silence.

Preparation for bias. Many participants indicated that they engage in discussions with their children about racial bias, race related incidents that have happened to them in the past, and race related incidents on the news—all in an attempt to prepare their children for what could happen to them because of their race. Some parents shared global messages with their children, including “being careful” in general when out in public and making sure they are on their best behavior, so that other people won’t target them because of their race. Others mentioned discussing news events with their children in order to make them aware of the potential biases they may face and how to handle them:
I explain to ‘em that first of all you have to be aware of what’s going on in society today. So we must tell our children the things that are going on on TV. And so they can see and handle themselves better. As far as that problem, it’s been over 200 years it’s been going on. And it’s gonna be another until maybe we see the changes.

In driving, in being in the mall, walking down the street, you know, you pretty much have to know that if you’re a person of color that people will look at (you). And it’s a beautiful thing to be our color. But people have chosen to just label us, you know, as people of color to say something is wrong, they did it, you know. Without us being given the opportunity. So I share with him, and I share with his friends, because we have to let people know that you can get through it. I try to talk to him about it to where he understands it’s a part of life. It’s a part of what we have to deal with.
Necessity of “The Talk.” In addition to preparing their children for the general racial bias and prejudice they might encounter, many participants also indicated that they specifically prepare their children for interactions with police officers by engaging in some form of “The Talk.” These participants believed that following step-by-step guidelines for such interactions are in the best interest of the safety and well-being of their minor children. These parents mainly emphasized respect for authority figures and certain guidelines to follow when interacting with police officers or other members of law enforcement. Respect for authority figures was featured prominently in the participants’ responses. They indicated that they stress the importance of their children being respectful during all interactions with the police. Some of them stated that while it is known that African Americans are frequent victims of police racial bias and brutality, not all police officers are bad. Therefore, no matter what the situation may be, their children should always give all officers the utmost respect. Several also expressed the belief that showing respect for police officers is one of the most effective approaches to save their own life.
I just tell my son to be respectful, you know. First of all, do what you can not to be put in that situation. I used to tell him how. Now I just have to tell him to, you know, if ever put in that situation, just to make sure that he doesn’t make silly mistakes. Like you know, putting your hands in your pocket. You know? It’s simple stuff that they could take as a threat to their lives and that would take away his.

I just tell him you know, you’re Black and you know you might encounter this, because for some reason they target us. And no matter how much your parents may do, no matter what neighborhood you’re in, your car, you know, you get targeted. And I just talk to my son about it. And I just tell him man, you have to be careful. When you around police, you have to be respectful. No matter what, yes sir, no sir. And you move on. You move on to live another day. You have to be respectful.
Many participants also detailed the guidelines to follow when coming into contact with the police. Again, their reasoning for doing so was often the belief that following these guidelines could potentially spare their children’s lives if confronted with biased officers.
I feel as a parent to make sure that I go over some real crucial, I don’t know if you want to call ‘em details or whatever. If she get pulled over by the police, how to conduct yourself, because of all the latest shootings. You know, even the other brutality that we don’t even hear about. Put your hands…if they get pulled over, make sure they see your hands at all times. Make sure you say ‘yes sir,’ ‘yes ma’am.’ Just provide everything they ask you without no back talk or nothing like that.

Being in law enforcement, and seeing events take place on television, I’ve shared with them that when you get pulled over, make sure that you sit still. Make sure both hands are visible to the officer. Whether they’re Black, White, Hispanic, Asian, make sure your hands are visible. And whatever you do, don’t reach for your insurance. Don’t reach for anything until they tell you to reach for it. And I even told them don’t put your insurance card in the glove box. Put it on the visor. So that way, you never have, you don’t give this officer a reason to suspect that you gonna reach for something in your glove box, because your insurance card is right on your visor.
Silence. While the majority of the participants indicated that they engage in conversations with their children about race-related issues, racial bias, and police brutality, some reported that they had not had such conversations. A few indicated that participating in this study had made them realize that it is probably time to have such conversations soon. However, three people reported indicate that they intentionally avoid these conversations either due to discomfort with the topic or because they believe that teaching children egalitarianism and practicing colorblindness is a better approach.
I don’t have any interactions with the police where I am now. It’s, I guess you could say an upper scale neighborhood. So the police don’t visit much, unless they’re called. For the kids, they really don’t deal with that. For me, it’s a calming effect because I’m away from it. I’m not around it like I was when I was younger. I guess I just avoid it is what I do.

I’m raising white people and Black people, so I cannot have Black and white conversations inside of my household. We don’t discuss color. I just tell my kids they all equal.
This mother also indicated that she does not agree with the media portrayals of white police officers’ treatment of black men, because she believes they act “a certain way” towards everybody:
We don’t really know the whole story of a lot of things that’s going on in the word, and we tend to focus on these little glimpse of police officers did this…blah, blah, blah. It don’t have nothing to do with what color they are.

Sources of Strength

The third research question aimed to identify the sources of strengths for the African-American families. Overwhelmingly, the participants reported relying on their faith and their families.

Faith. Many participants indicated that they relied on their faith and religious beliefs, and that God was their primary source of strength. In addition, some indicated that prayer was important and that being in God’s presence during prayer is what keeps them sane. They were generally optimistic that as long as they continue to honor God, he would answer their prayers and get them through the hard times.
The only thing that I tell my children, that we can depend on God. That’s it. Because without him, we in a world of trouble. And with him we gon’ have some struggles or whatever. But with God we gon’ overcome ‘em.

Our source of strength as far as a family and me, I still depend on God. I just follow him. He sees what’s happening. He knows what’s happening. And then even when you look in the Bible and see how certain people, kings that were in charge, there were some evil kings. They did evil things and the people suffered. But God allowed it. So even in this day and age, I see he allows it. But there are some suffering because of the sin of our kin. But the way we get through it, through multiple stress, is that our faith is in God. So we know that he’s watching us. He protects us. And whatever we go through is for a reason. And you know it won’t last too long. You know, we will come out. We have the victory.
Family. The participants’ responses also revealed that family is a great source of strength for them. About half of the participants identified it as their main source. They stressed the importance of engaging in regular family communication about the hardship of dealing with racial bias. Some considered these familial conversations to be therapeutic, and others described them as calming because the family support helps reduce the stress they experience from being targeted due to their race.
For me, it’s therapeutic when talking about it and sharing our feelings on it, because the more and more you hold that stuff in, the more and more it affects you mentally. So for me, talking about it with my parents, or even with my husband, really helps.

Knowing you have that family there to support you. You not standing alone. That to me is very important for our children to realize. They not alone. And you gotta talk about it.

It’s always like a family discussion. My husband is the one that really keeps me and my daughter calmed down with it. He sees that we be getting stressed out about it.

Discussion

The purpose of this study was to look at the impact of police racial bias and brutality on the mental health and daily functioning of African-American families. Overall, participants reported many personal experiences with racial bias, discrimination, and police brutality. Some even reported that their children had been subjected to blatant discrimination and violence from law enforcement representatives. Goff et al. (2014) characterized this as the consequences of dehumanizing black children. The study showed that African-American boys as young as 10 years old may be seen as less innocent when compared to their Caucasian peers, are more likely to be assumed to be older and guilty, and fall victim to police brutality if accused of taking part in a crime.

Reports from our participants indicated different experiences based on gender and SES. In general, the female participants reported fewer personal experiences with law enforcement, and the experiences they did report were usually in the form of racial profiling and bias rather than aggressive or violent encounters. All reports of police brutality and harassment were from male participants, or female participants reporting on the experiences of male family members. In addition, there appeared to be differences based on SES, with individuals of lower SES and those living in low-income neighborhoods being more likely to have experienced aggressive or violent treatment by police. These differences are likely due to men being perceived as more threatening than women, and low-SES individuals perceived as more likely to engage in criminal behavior. Interestingly, while the experiences differed based on gender and SES, the emotional toll of having experienced discrimination or violence, either directly or indirectly, based on race were similar across demographic groups. Similarly, attitudes towards police in general and perceptions of racial discrimination and police brutality in the United States did not appear to differ significantly between the groups.

It was clear from the 18 parents who participated that their families were impacted in multiple ways. Direct and indirect negative experiences with law enforcement, as well as media coverage of police racial bias and brutality, influenced their mental health, their outlook on life, the conversations they have with their children, and the way they prepare their children for the future.

For these participants, daily life has been impacted by their direct and indirect experiences with police officers, media coverage of race-related incidents, and racial bias in general. Some live with constant fear and worry over future interactions with the police, as well as worry for their children’s safety in a biased world. Some are very angry, some feel stressed on a daily basis, and some experience feelings of worthlessness due to the way they have been treated. Because their mental health has been compromised, their familial, personal, work, and social lives have all been negatively impacted. These findings are similar to those of Perkins et al. (2014) who found that black men reported negativity, anger, and depressive symptoms due to their negative encounters with police, law enforcement, and incarceration. Similarly, English et al. (2017) found a significant relationship between black men’s police-based discrimination experiences and depressive symptoms. However, direct encounters with police brutality are not necessary to experience the mental health impact. Racism can be experienced vicariously, and thus, the mere knowledge of police killings of unarmed Black Americans can lead to increased fear and anger, decreased trust in authority figures, and heightened perceptions of discrimination (Bor et al., 2018). Ultimately, the psychological effects of perceived racism and direct experiences with discrimination can lead to physical health effects as well, including heart disease, hypertension, sleep disturbance, and even cancer (Paradies, 2006).

Some participants reported that despite their past experiences and acknowledgement of ongoing racial bias and discrimination, their mental health had not been impacted. These individuals were determined not to give the perpetrators of race related discrimination and brutality any more power or control over their lives.

When exploring the manner in which African-American parents are discussing racial bias, discrimination, and police brutality with their children, the majority indicated that they try to prepare their children for the bias and discrimination they may face due to the color of their skin. For many, their own experiences and their worry for their children’s safety were catalysts to having these conversations. They especially indicated a desire for their children to be mindful of their surroundings and to know how to handle any negative encounters they might face. Many also expressed the importance of “The Talk”—preparing their children specifically for interactions with the police—as part of their racial socialization practices. Due to personal experiences and media coverage of racial profiling and police brutality towards African Americans, these parents perceived it vital to their children’s survival that they teach them how to interact with police officers. Therefore, they instruct their children to follow specific guidelines, such as what to do if they get pulled over by the police, where to place their hands, where to leave their cell phone and car insurance, when to speak, and what to say. Many also reported specifically instructing their children to always show respect to police officers because they believe this might help save their lives.

These types of conversations tend to be unique to African-American families, especially those with boys (Amber, 2013). While none of the participants expressed a direct connection between the necessity of these conversations and their mental health, it is likely that this connection exists. When parents feel the need to guide their children’s behaviors not only to avoid getting in trouble but also to save their lives, it likely comes from a deep fear that their children’s death at the hands of law enforcement is a possibility, and that is bound to add increased stress to their daily lives.

A few participants reported that they had not engaged in specific race related conversations with their children. While two of them indicated that participation in this study had made them realize that they probably should do so, the others indicated that their silence on these topics was intentional, either as an avoidance strategy or to promote egalitarianism and colorblindness. Unfortunately, previous research has shown that avoidance of race-related issues can foster social isolation and cultivate internalized negative feelings (Hall & Fields, 2015).

Particularly interesting was the response from a mother who was raising two black and three white children together. She expressed that discussing racial bias and race-related incidents with her children could possibly be offensive and cause a racial divide within her close-knit family. She believed it important to teach her children that “all people are equal” and she did not want them to “see” color. This promotion of colorblindness is commonly found among white parents (Vittrup, 2018), but it is much less common among African Americans (Hughes, 2003). It is important to note that silence about race and race-related incidents may indirectly send children a message that race is a taboo topic, that there is something wrong with people of a different race, and that current race relations and inequalities are okay (Tatum, 2014). Ultimately, this could lead to the development of racial bias and promotion of the status quo due to the fact that issues of prejudice, discrimination, and inequality are not being acknowledged and denounced (Bonilla-Silva, 2014).

When asked to describe their sources of strength when dealing with racial bias and discrimination, the participants overwhelmingly mentioned faith and family. For many, their belief in God is what keeps them going during difficult times. Believing that there is a higher being watching out for them, and being able to communicate their struggles via prayer, serves as a comfort and gives them hope. This finding is similar to that of Bell-Tolliver and Wilkerson (2011) who found that African Americans identified God as the core of their coping. Many participants also mentioned finding strength in their family relationships. The unity of the family provides an outlet for them to express their worries and makes them feel they are not alone. The importance of family relationships, shared values, and interdependence has also been documented by Littlejohn-Black and Darling (1993).

Recommendations for Professionals Working with African-American Families

This study revealed valuable information that could improve the lives of African-American families who have been impacted by racism and negative interactions with law enforcement. First, it is important for professionals working with African American families to recognize the emotional burdens that are carried by many of them, not only from the trauma of personal experiences with police racial bias brutality but also from vicarious experiences of race-related violence. It is especially important to acknowledge the fear of their children’s mortality, as well as to assess how the children are affected by this. While most participants reported that they engage in some level of preparation of bias, they did so with varying levels of specificity and in different frequency. Some parents may need help overcoming their own trauma before they are ready to have these conversations with their children, and the children may need help processing the information and coping with the fact that the outside world may be biased against them because of the color of their skin. Finally, it is important for professionals working with African-American families to acknowledge the importance of faith and family unity for these families. Drawing on the families’ existing sources of strength can ultimately provide better outcomes.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

This study was limited in scope due to the small number of participants, limited geographical region from which participants were recruited, and exclusion of adults without children. Future research would benefit from a broader participant area and larger sample in order to determine generalizability of the findings.

Findings from this study revealed a strong perception of a racial divide between African-American civilians and Caucasian police officers. Almost all participants reported incidents of racially motivated police encounters that negatively impacted them and their family as a whole, yet they still remained determined to continue to respect authority as a means to bridge the gap between African Americans and the police. Future research should analyze the differing expectations African Americans and the police have for each other and for their interactions. Additionally, an assessment of police officers’ thoughts and reactions when interacting with African Americans may provide insights into the concept of “kill or be killed” (Henry, 1995). Finally, research on local and national interventions should be conducted to investigate how the perceived racial divide can be minimized.

A few participants reported having had negative encounters with African American police officers, and one participant indicated the emotional conflict he felt because he had been raised with the expectation that “Black people should look after other Black people.” Future research should explore the perceptions African-American families have of African-American police officers, as well as the experiences of African-American police officers in regards to their encounters with African-American individuals and with Caucasian police officers.

Future qualitative research could also be beneficial in exploring the views of non-African-American parents in relation to police racial bias and brutality towards African Americans. Exploring the views of police officers and their perception of their interactions with African Americans and how their encounters may impact African American families as a whole could prove beneficial as well.

Conclusion

The findings of this study revealed that African-American families have been significantly impacted by general racism as well as police racial bias and brutality towards African Americans. Many of them carry a heavy burden of constant fear and worry, both for themselves and for their children, and they feel forced to prepare their minor children for a variety of negative encounters with the police, even as law abiding citizens. This psychological burden can lead to various mental health outcomes, and it is important for therapists and professionals who work with this population to be mindful of such. However, it is also important for society as a whole to recognize the trauma that police killings of unarmed African Americans cause for African Americans in general and African-American parents and youth in particular. Schools and community organizations have the opportunity to educate their communities about these issues, and government officials have a duty to ensure the safety of all citizens, regardless of race.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Brigitte Vittrup

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