Intergenerational Perspectives of Paternal Parenting Practices: A Descriptive Qualitative Study

Abstract

There are limited studies exploring the phenomenon of fatherhood in an Asian context, and no dyad qualitative studies have been conducted to understand grandfathers’ and fathers’ perspectives on parenting. This study aims to explore the intergenerational perspectives of paternal parenting practices in Singapore. A descriptive qualitative approach was adopted. Face-to-face interviews were conducted on 12 grandfather–father dyads from the pediatric general ward in a public tertiary hospital in Singapore. Thematic analysis revealed four themes on the influences that affect grandfathers’ and fathers’ perspectives on parenting: (a) Personal traits influencing fathers’ perspectives, (b) external influences that shape parenting, (c) personal views on parenting, and (d) child’s traits that influence parenting. The findings urge professionals to involve fathers in maternity and pediatric care and encourage fathers to work closely with grandfathers to promote positive child developmental outcomes. Further research is needed to develop educational or supportive programs for fathers and grandfathers.

Keywords

Intergenerational grandfathers fathers parenting midwives nursing qualitative Singapore

Introduction

Parenting is defined as safeguarding children’s health and safety and teaching cultural values while preparing children for the life they may face in the future (APA, 2020). Father’s involvement in parenting has been documented to contribute positively to child psychosocial adjustment, cognitive competence, and the ability to form strong positive social relationships with others (Cano et al., 2019; Madden et al., 2015; Wilson & Prior, 2011). Furthermore, father’s participation in child’s care at times of sickness is associated with better recovery and improved medical outcome (Allport et al., 2018; Higham & Davies, 2013; McBride, 2016).

Stereotypically, fathers have been assumed the “breadwinner” status of the family, with their role oriented mainly to financial contribution, and a smaller role in child-rearing in relation to mothers (Shan & Hawkins, 2014). The rising trend of female participation in the workforce, dual-income families, increases father’s active involvement in child-rearing (Shorey et al., 2018). Despite the increase in father’s participation, research on men’s perspectives on father’s involvement is still somewhat limited (Guzzo, 2011; Jessee & Adamsons, 2018). Numerous studies have also indicated the inadequacy of father’s engagement in parenting intervention (Allport et al., 2018; Guzzo, 2011; Tully et al., 2017), with only 13%–20% of attendance rate (Tully et al., 2018).

Research has suggested the plausibility of intergenerational transmission of parenting behaviors from fathers to sons. Fathers’ own experiences with their fathers can influence the way they foster father–child relationships (Brown et al., 2018; Gettler et al., 2019). Due to the presence of such transmission across generations, securing grandfathers’ and fathers’ voices on parenting is hence significant. Thus far, a direct comparison of grandfathers’ and father’s perspectives in parenting behaviors has been rarely made (Hofferth et al., 2012).

Background

The concept of fatherhood itself is complex and multidimensional. Various roles (e.g., caregiver, financial provider, authority figure, and disciplinarian) are associated with fatherhood. The father–child relationships are also affected by several determinants—societal expectations, personal beliefs, occupation, and relationships with family members and colleagues (Birditt et al., 2012; Shorey & Ang, 2019; Sieben, 2017). Fathers also serve as a role model for their children to follow, hence forming an intergenerational link (Belsky, 1984).

Yeung’s (2012) study on Asian fatherhood has revealed how cultures have shaped the notion of “Family.” Patriarchy is still a familiar scene in Asian societies today despite the increase in women’s labor force participation (Shorey & Ang, 2019; Yeung, 2012). In Singapore, the breadwinner role of a father remains dominant, and hence, fathers are not socially expected to be involved in child-rearing (Shan & Hawkins, 2014; Shorey & Ang, 2019; Yeung, 2012). There is also a presence of racial differences in fathering behaviors (Guzzo, 2011; Shorey & Ang, 2019; Yeung, 2012). Muslim Malay fathers usually view their parenting roles to be part of their religious duties entrusted by God, while Chinese fathers’ view of fatherhood is to guan, or train, while displaying control, distance, and restrictiveness (Shan & Hawkins, 2014; Yeung, 2012). This further emphasizes on how conducting this present study in a multicultural society like Singapore, where culture and ethnicities can shape the beliefs of parenting behaviors, will be favorable to examine the trajectories and determinants behind the concept of fatherhood.

In addition, literature focusing on father’s perspectives is limited, and few studies involve two father figures, that is, both grandfather and father. The only paper that explored intergenerational perspectives of Korean fathers, by including both grandfathers and fathers, was last published in 2000 (Jung & Honig, 2000). Even in Singapore, most studies on parenting focus on mother–child, mother–father–child relationships, rather than father–child alone. No local studies have examined parenting between two generations (Shan & Hawkins, 2014). Furthermore, a recent meta-synthesis on paternal involvement included 13 articles, with only two articles based in Singapore (both during the early postpartum period) (Shorey & Ang, 2019). This portrays the urgent need of understanding father’s needs and experience, especially in a multiracial society like Singapore. The aim of this study was to explore perceptions of paternal parenting from both grandfathers and fathers from the same family in Singapore.

Methods

Design

A descriptive qualitative study design was adopted for this study. This enables the study of social behaviors and thoughts, allowing participants to express themselves in ways that are consequential or culturally significant to them (Almeida et al., 2017; Farrelly, 2013).

Sample/Participants

The participants were recruited from pediatric general wards in a public tertiary hospital in Singapore. Purposive sampling was used to recruit grandfathers and fathers of different ethnicities (Chinese, Malay, Indian, and others), and those that fit the eligibility criteria (Robinson, 2014) until data saturation was reached.

The inclusion criteria for fathers were those : (a) who were 21 years and above; (b) who were able to read and speak in either English and Mandarin; (c) who were either Singaporean or a permanent resident of Singapore; (d) who had a child aged younger than 18 years (World Health Organization, 2020) and without cognitive disabilities or terminal illness; and (e) whose father was still alive and willing to participate in this study. The inclusion criteria for grandfathers are those who: (a) were able to read and speak in either English and Mandarin and (b) were both functional and cognitively capable. The exclusion criteria for the participants were fathers who had visual and/or hearing impairments or had mental disorders that may interfere with the data collection interviews.

Participants’ Characteristics

There were 12 grandfather–father dyads, with each pair from the same family. The pairs included 10 Chinese, one Malay and one Indian. The average age of grandfathers was 66 years old, while for fathers, the average age was 35 years old. Among the recruited fathers’ children, the age of the child ranges from 26 days to 16 years old. Majority of the monthly income of the grandfathers falls between S$1,001 and S$3,000 and for fathers, it falls between S$5,001 and S$10,000. Table 1 shows the full sociodemographic characteristics of the participants.

Table 1.

Full Sociodemographic Data of Participants.

No.	Age	Ethnicity	Nationality	Marital Status	Living Status	Educational Level	Employment Status	Occupation (If Retired, Specify the Occupation)	Monthly Income	Number of Child(ren) (Age of the Child)
Grandfathers (n = 12)
1	68 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Secondary	Retired	SPH	Did not wish to specify	3
2	67 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with partner	Secondary	Working	Did not wish to specify.	S$1,001–S$3,000	3 (37,32,31)
3	69 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Post-secondary	Working	Bank officer	S$5,001–S$10,000	1 (31)
4	61 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Primary school	Working	Chemical delivery	S$1,001–S$3,000	2 (34,33)
5	62 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with partner	Bachelor’s degree	Semi-retired	Banker	>S$10,001	2 (35,29)
6	69 years	Malay	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Secondary	Retired	Did not wish to specify	<S$1,001	2 (42,39)
7	86 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with partner	Bachelor’s degree	Retired	Teacher	S$3,001–S$5,000	1 (37)
8	67 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Primary school	Working	Cleaner	S$1,001–S$3,000	3 (35,39,40)
9	65 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Secondary	Working	Did not wish to specify	S$1,001–S$3,000	4
10	61 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with partner	Post-secondary	Working	Operation executive	S$3,001–S$5,000	1
11	60 years	Indian	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Post-secondary: JC–NCJ	Retired	RSAF	<S$1,001	2
12	67 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with partner	Secondary	Working	Contractor	S$1,001–S$3,000	2 (35,38)
Fathers (n = 12)
13	35 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Bachelor’s degree	Working	Engineer	S$5,001–S$10,000	1 (3)
14	32 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Bachelor’s degree	Working	Engineer	S$5,001–S$10,000	1 (18 months)
15	32 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Bachelor’s degree	Working	Product specialist	S$3,001–S$5,000	2 (3, 9 months)
16	34 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Post-secondary	Working	Did not wish to specify	$3,001–S$5,000	2 (26 days)
17	35 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Bachelor’s degree	Working	Business	>S$10,001	2 (2, 5)
18	43 years	Malay	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Post-secondary: Diploma	Working	IT consultant	S$5,001–S$10,000	6 (12, 16, 15, 10, 9, 7)
19	37 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Bachelor’s degree	Working	Teacher	S$5,001–S$10,000	1 (5)
20	39 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Master’s degree	Working	Research	S$5,001–S$10,000	2 (4, 2)
21	39 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Degree	Working	Settlement officer	S$5,001–S$10,000	1 (2)
22	34 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Bachelor’s degree	Working	Medical sales representative	S$5,001–S$10,000	3 (2, 4, 8)
23	30 years	Indian	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Bachelor’s degree	Working	Shipping logistics	S$5,001–S$10,000	1 (3)
24	38 years	Chinese	Singaporean	Married	Living with children and partner	Bachelor’s degree	Working	Engineer	S$5,001–S$10,000	2 (4, 5 months)

Data Collection

Interview guide

The researcher collected data using a semi-structured interview guide that was developed with reference to the theories of parenting behaviors and questions used in previous studies and journals (Bandura & Walters, 1977; Bowlby, 1969; Cano et al., 2019; Daly, 1993; Hofferth et al., 2012; Jung & Honig, 2000; Shan & Hawkins, 2014; Snarey, 1993). A clinical expert and a qualitative research expert were involved in validating the semi-structured guide. The questions were mainly focused on general views of parenting methods (e.g., showing affection, discipline strategies) and the role of a father and their relationship with their partner, father, and child. A pilot or “test” interview was conducted with a father participant, and the interview guide was refined further to ensure a smooth interview process.

Procedure

Data collection took place between August 2019 and December 2019. After obtaining ethics approval, participants who met the eligibility criteria were identified by the nursing staff of the ward and referred to the researcher. The researcher then invited them to participate in the study. Mutually agreed interview slots were arranged, and all interviews were conducted in a quiet and conducive environment within hospital premises. All interviews were audio-recorded with the participant’s consent. The bilingual interviewer conducted the interview either in English or Mandarin, based on the participant’s preference. Participant’s sociodemographic information such as age and ethnicity were collected. Data saturation was reached at the 10th dyad, and two more dyads were interviewed to confirm that there was no new information. Excluding the pilot interview, a total of 12 father–grandfather dyads were conducted, each interview lasting between 15 and 60 minutes.

Ethics consideration

Ethical approval was obtained from the ethics committee of the hospital (SingHealth CIRB Ref:2019/2524). Participants were informed of the purpose, benefit, and risks of the study, ensuring informed consent. Participants were reassured about the anonymity and confidentiality of their responses. Voluntary participation was emphasized and justification for withdrawal of involvement would not be required.

Data Analysis

Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data (Vaismoradi et al., 2013). All audio-recorded interviews were transcribed verbatim by the researcher right after the interview. Interviews conducted in Mandarin were transcribed in Mandarin and translated into English. All data were reviewed by the researcher and another researcher independently to ensure the accuracy of the transcription.

Transcripts were reviewed and reread several times to gain familiarity and to ensure that the interview responses were interpreted accurately. Data that were similar in ideas or have repetitive patterns were color-coded (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Fathers’ and grandfathers’ transcripts were first analyzed separately. Relevant codes and concepts from grandfathers and fathers were then identified and collated together, forming subthemes. The subthemes were merged to form a broad theme (Malterud, 2012). This process was conducted with another researcher of the team. Consensus decision-making was used for any differing findings to ensure credibility of the findings.

Rigor

Researchers practiced reflexivity throughout the research process to avoid imposing personal opinions, ensuring credibility of the study (Cypress, 2017). Data triangulation, which captures different perspectives from the same phenomenon, was conducted to analyze the data (Halpern, 1983). Quotations from participants were presented to ensure transparency and credibility of the study (Lincoln & Guba, 1986). To ensure dependability, we kept a detailed audit trail where the process data collection and data analysis were specified in detail to assure transparency of the research process (Halpern, 1983).

Results

Four themes emerged from the thematic analysis (Table 2). The overarching theme derived described fatherhood to be a work in progress. The four themes detailed influences that affect grandfathers–fathers’ perspectives of paternal parenting. The four themes are: (a) personal traits influencing fathers’ perspectives, (b) external influences that shape parenting, (c) personal views on parenting, and (d) child’s traits that influence parenting. Each quotation from the participant was referenced by the pseudonyms assigned to the respective participants. For each pseudonym, GF stands for grandfather and F stands for father. Dyads from the same family will have the same number allocated to their pseudonym, for instance, GF1, F1.

Table 2.

Themes and Subthemes of the Study.

Themes	Subthemes
Personal traits influencing fathers’ perspectives	• Moral values • Personal beliefs • Personality
External influences that shape parenting	• Societal views about fatherhood • Cultural influences • Observations in real life
Personal views on parenting	• Individual parenting experiences • Past childhood experiences • Exposure and knowledge about parenting • Situational circumstances
Child’s traits that influence parenting	• Child’s demographics • Child’s personality, interests and behavior • Future of the child

Personal Traits Influencing Fathers’ Perspectives

Participants have expressed how their characteristics such as moral values, personal beliefs, and personality could influence their parenting.

Moral values

Both grandfathers and fathers see their role as a father as a person that guides and shapes the child’s moral values (e.g., honesty and respect). They feel it is their moral role to help the child to be able to distinguish between right and wrong.

I think I have to guide him [his son] on moral values and standing up to what is right and wrong. . . as a parent I think it’s my role, my moral values. . .we need to show them the right way of not picking up the bad habits and learning the good ones also yeah! (F1)

[T]he important thing is that they [his children] need to know what is right and wrong and then uh. . .. I think respect is also very important uh. . .for respect I think sometimes I will tell him that what he has done is wrong lah. (GF10)

Personal beliefs

Both grandfathers and fathers adjust their parenting according to their personal beliefs—usually shaped by their assumptions and experiences. Fathers generally felt immense love and pride for their children, with some feeling grateful for the opportunity to be a father. One father believed that good parenting does not need to determine a specific path for the child.

To me, academically doing well is not everything (. . .) I don’t think I am a very successful parent because my son is a doctor, astronaut or whatever. . .if next time he is doing good (a kind-honest person), I honestly think that my job is done already. (F9)

Most of the grandfathers believe that as long as it is within their capabilities and things required by their grandchildren are necessities, they will do whatever they can to provide for their grandchildren.

Any activities, anything that they think that they want to participate in school, or they need a. . .certain materials (. . .) that they want. . .no hesitations (. . .) and this is to me, not a luxurious, not a materialistic kind of demand, is a necessity (. . .) what they require within my capability, I can give, I will give. (GF2)

Personality

Both grandfathers and fathers have expressed how their personality has molded their method of showing affection to their child, with the majority finding it hard to express themselves verbally to their children. They also tend to adopt a relaxed approach toward their children to ensure peace in the household.

I am the one who is more casual ah so I’m. . .not the one who disciplines. . .. I am more easy going. . .which means most of the time what they do (chuckles. . .) I am okay with it. (F3)

[P]ersonally, I will hide my emotions, so I don’t really express it out. I will just praise him with those few words like “ok well done” that’s all.” (GF9)

External Influences that Shape Parenting

Participants have expressed how external influences, such as societal views, cultural influences, and observations in real life, have shaped their idea of parenting. As regards, grandfathers, they seem to have verbalized how the availability of resources limit what they can do or provide as a father.

Societal views about fatherhood

Societal changes are a continuum; views on parenting practices would also have changed over time. Fathers have suggested how parenting in the past was “old” and “traditional.”

[L]ast time my mum will cane me lah but I think that is an old way of parenting I understand uh. . .. Actually, most of the time he [his father] will scold me uh. . .but like I said this is like the old way of parenting. (F2)

While describing their parenting practices, some of the fathers described their parenting to be “normal” and “mainstream.”

[M]y parenting style is pretty much uhh my style is pretty much normal, mainstream parenting style (. . .) as any normal family over the weekends or during school holidays, we will try to find time to do uh. . .to go out and to enjoy some family outings together. (F6)

Grandfathers have suggested how societal requirements in the past have influenced their level of involvement as a parent.

[I]f you look at my, my generation. . .we have to hurry up and come out and work, to provide for my parents. . .. And then the immediate thing is that we have to raise our own family? And then we would want to have children? Right?. . .get the income and then raise our family, so basically that is our main objective in life. Not much time to think and spend with family. (GF5)

Looking at the current generation’s parenting, some grandfathers have also expressed how their parenting is “outdated,” and how parents today have more complicated parenting concerns and practices.

[B]ut times have changed. . .my parenting practices is rather outdated and the style now is pretty different. We never had concerns about childcare (smiled). (GF1)

[I]n the past it will be done in one or two steps (any childcare step), but now. . .wah 2, 3, 4 steps. They are more complicated. (GF9)

Cultural influences

Participants have emphasized how cultural teachings are essential to their children; that they will certainly educate their children on religious or cultural knowledge and practices; and that culture has a strong influence on their parenting. One Muslim father expressed that he expects his child to continue the same religion.

I put these expectations of filial piety towards my children, because that is how I was brought up as Asians. . .to respect back the elders. . .to give back to the parents (. . .) In terms of religion yes, I would expect or want my generation to continue on to the same religion which is Islam so. . .. I did start on. . .religious practice, religious teachings for my kids (. . .) I think religion is pretty important. (F6)

Some grandfathers emphasized on religious education and certain cultural practices.

[A]s a Muslim. . .religious education and formal education, that is the most important thing (. . .) we emphasize more on religious education lah as a Muslim. (GF6)

For us Chinese, liyilianchi (courtesy and shame) is something that we must know (. . .) Filial piety, manners. . .table manners. When we are eating, you must address the eldest (. . ..) So when we are having a meal together as a family, table manners are a must. . .it’s a form of respect. (GF9)

Observations in real life

Participants have expressed how observations made during their generations have resulted in a thought and learning process. Some fathers verbalized how they are not agreeable to the way other parents conduct their parenting practices and, hence, parent their child in a way that is different from others.

[S]ometimes when you have a child, you do not know what you want, or you do not know how you want the child to be, but you will definitely know what you don’t want the child to be. . .You see some kids outside, they don’t really respect the elders. . .if I have a child I don’t want my child to be like that, so. . .parent in a way that you don’t want your child to be like that. (F10)

Some grandfathers have explained how observations have taught them how to parent their child.

[P]eople just observe right or by word of mouth you know like “you know, so and so, children are so. . .. Dah” so you know by word of mouth, so we know “oh by this way. . ..” So that is generally the generation then lah. . .. So other people encourage their child that way. . .so we also feel that is an encouragement lah. (GF5)

Personal Views on Parenting

All participants have different personal life experiences and have varying exposures that add knowledge to their lives. Participants have shared how their life experiences (e.g., parenting, childhood, exposure, and expertise) resulted in the adjustment of their parenting behaviors. Some participants have also explained how they felt that actions should be measured and how it should suit the situation’s requirement rather than following a structure. One of the grandfathers also expressed how his circumstances back then—failed marriage—have influenced his involvement as a father.

Individual parenting experiences

Grandfathers and fathers have shared how previous parenting experiences subsequently changed their parenting behavior.

[B]ecause my first experience with my first daughter is quite bad uh (. . .regarding swimming. . .) from there we learn uh okay lah, let our children familiarise themselves with the swimming pool environment. (F6)

[But I also learn a lot, from the kids (. . .) there was this one incident, when I was away. . .. I told my wife that uh “you must tell him [his son] to not mix around with this guys here, they are bad influence and all that” then my wife said that he [his son] told her, “what if I’m the bad one?”. . .. I really flip out the phone. . .that’s really bringing me back. . .to reality (. . .) so from there you slowly develop. . .the things he like, but you must be there to guide them. (GF11)

Past childhood experiences

Participants have expressed how their past childhood experiences have directed their parenting practices. Some fathers do not see the effect of certain parenting behaviors by their parents and, hence, attempt to equilibrate by not exercising the very same method.

I didn’t understand why they were doing that [corporate punishment] to me and when I look back also, I also ask “how can they do that?”. . .. I just don’t get it, I don’t feel like I learn from getting whack, so personally I don’t feel its effective, so I don’t want to employ that method for my parenting style. (F11)

Similarly, some grandfathers did not believe in their father’s parenting method of corporal punishment and decided not to do the same, whereas others followed their father’s relaxed parenting style. According to one grandfather, “because my parents didn’t really control much also. . . just like my father, I didn’t really force my sons to go and do what they don’t like” (GF12)

Exposure and knowledge about parenting

Work and life experiences exposed participants to varying trajectories of life. Grandfathers and fathers gained knowledge through these exposures and understand what is essential to teach their child.

[Because] we work in technology line we will know. . .the disadvantages of this type of devices. . . it can become an addiction uh. (F2)

If you don’t know courtesy, respect and filial piety. . .to us you are useless already. . .is also because we have seen things, we have seen many types of people outside. . .politics at work we have also experienced. (GF9)

In the past they don’t really focus on education. . .but that time. . .after I have been through the army, then I realised that having no education is. . .quite difficult, very difficult to get to the higher position. . .so will see their results lah. (GF12)

Situational circumstances

Grandfathers and fathers believed that situational circumstances determine their behavior. Different achievements or mistakes require different levels of rewards or punishment. They believe that parenting actions have to go through many considerations before anything should be done.

I think it really depends on what kind of. . .achievement. . .. I think it has to be measured ah. . .when you have achieved something we are happy for you. . .but you better not let it get it up to your head over this thing. (F3)

If it is something severe, then I will hit him. His mother will also hit him, and that is if he does the wrong thing. (. . .) not saying that I will punish him every single time, because it is not right to constantly use physical punishment too. (GF4)

One grandfather also expressed how his failed marriage has affected his involvement and his method of showing affection to his child.

I had a failed marriage uh (. . .) I didn’t really have a good partner to you know do the corporation [collaboration] because it takes two parties to work together. . .when he was growing up, I was a single parent, I spend most of the time working (. . .) So, we don’t really have much time for close bonding. (. . .) I was compensating that with gifts. . .for the time that I don’t spend with him. . .whatever he wants ill buy for him. (GF10)

Child’s Traits that Influence Parenting

Child’s demographics

Grandfathers and fathers have expressed how the child’s demographics, especially age and gender influence parenting methods. Age determines the maturity level of the child, and gender sets certain gender role expectations. Fathers will then have to adjust their parenting accordingly. While some fathers adopted a more encouraging role toward their daughters, others feel the need to be a good role model for their son.

I think like girl is more cautious (. . .) she will think first before she tries. . .more cautious in a while, so we always encourage her to try. . .. I am gentler with my daughter. (F12)

But as a father the son will look up to you in the future, he would think of the way his father was when he employs his parenting style (. . .) so especially if you have sons. . .it’s very important on how you carry yourself. (F11)

On the other hand, grandfathers felt that there is a “pride issue” and have “nothing much to say” between father and son, and that it is easier to parent a child when they are younger. As reported by one grandfather, if he was much younger then it will be much easier to control. . . He will be afraid of us when he is young, but now that he is older, it is different. (GF4)

Child’s personality, interests, and behavior

Grandfathers and fathers believed that the personalities and interests of their child force parenting style to change.

Because my two children are very different. Their characters itself forces the parenting style to change. It is not really like, as much as the parents would want to, first child, copy and paste for the second child. Some parents do realise that sometimes the nature of the child, the character of the child differ and doesn’t allow you to do that. You can’t force a square pack into a round hole. (F8)

I feel that for kids, should just let them go with the flow, every child is different. . .some learns fast, some are slow. . .. For me, I didn’t decide on the path for them, I just let them explore on their own, do whatever they like. . .because if you decide on the path for them, it may not be a smooth journey for them. . .every child’s growth is different. (GF12)

Future of the child

Grandfathers and fathers understand how their practices can affect the child’s future behavior and, hence, see the need to start preparing their child for society and the working world. They will teach their child the skills that will ultimately benefit them in the future.

[W]hen we were young we did wash our own school shoes, learn how to iron our own school uniform all this (. . .), I will still train him [his son] to do all this then end of the day he won’t suffer so much when he goes to national service. Must teach him some tricks or skills. (F4)

[I]f you are not tough and season right now, and you go into the working world, that is reality. You may be bullied they are going to side lined you (. . .) I make them think, but they must be certain level to understand, they must be matured. . .so a lot of it uh. . .. I leave it to them. (. . .) That is more important. Bigger picture is they must solve their own problems (. . .) at the end of the day, is not that it should benefit you, it should benefit the child. (GF11)

Discussion

To the best of our knowledge, this was the first study that explored perceptions of paternal parenting from grandfather–father dyads from family units in Singapore. Both grandfathers and fathers perceive parenting to be affected by various influences. Moral values were one of the personal traits that were found to influence the parenting practices among fathers and grandfathers in this study. Moral values are internal system of beliefs that set the standards of roles, and in this context, the obligation of fatherhood (Bagozzi et al., 2013). This could influence other personal traits, such as personal beliefs, which act as a guide to what and how fathers would like to provide for the child, and personal characteristics that would shape the way they would express themselves. Previous research on relations between personalities and parenting styles presented similar findings where father’s personal traits can transform the way they perceive the role of a father and how they express affections to their child (Huver et al., 2010). For instance, emotionally stable parents are calm and self-satisfied and, hence, are believed to be less capable of exerting coercion parenting. In contrast, extraverted parents are associated with supportive roles (Huver et al., 2010).

Participants in this study have also consistently brought up terms like “these days,” “my generation,” and “their times,” which further exemplifies how the participants’ thought process is determined not just by personal traits but also by external influences such as societal norms. External influences such as societal obligations and observations result in a mindset shift on what can be improved during their fatherhood. Bandura’s and Walters (1977) social learning theory supports observational learning, where individuals have been found to observe, analyze, and regulate their practices accordingly. By considering both grandfathers’ and father’s parenting perspectives in our study, we can witness how both generations of fathers expressed the shift in mindset, from what was “required” in the past, to the description of their own, or their father’s parenting, to be “old” and “outdated.”

Across the three ethnicities participated in this study, all fathers believed in the importance of Asian cultural values—respect and filial piety—and Muslim fathers seem to place more emphasis on religious education. Consistent with previous findings in Yeung (2012), Asian cultural values, together with religious beliefs, shape family ideology and the notion of fatherhood. Even though findings showed the influence of cultural beliefs on parenting, and how Muslim fathers seem to place more emphasis on religious education, it is important to note that there was only one Muslim grandfather–father dyad included in the study.

Consistent with the modeling, compensation, and reworking hypothesis from existing studies (Guzzo, 2011; Hofferth et al., 2012; Thorn & Gilbert, 1998), fathers and grandfathers in this study had also brought out how prior experiences provided them with knowledge on what form of adjustment should be done in changing their parenting style. With the rising trend of dual-income family recently, grandparents have been seen to be involved in childcare (Shan & Hawkins, 2014), and their involvement has been widely known to result in positive nutrition habits and mental well-being in the child (Li et al., 2016). Looking at the intergenerational benefits on parenting, health care professionals can consider bridging the gaps between the two generations, such as to ensure that both generations of fathers work closely together in the childcare activities.

One unique perspective that was gathered through this study is how situational circumstances come into play when it comes to parenting. One grandfather expressed how his failed marital relationship affected his involvement as a father, which aligns with existing literature on how partner relations can alter motivation to be an involved parent (Minuchin, 1974; Turney & Halpern-Meekin, 2017). Such findings also opened up the possibilities of research to find out how the participation of another figure, be it partner or parents, can affect their understanding of parenthood.

Both grandfathers and fathers emphasized on how parenting should be adjusted based on child’s traits. Corresponding with previous studies, fathers have been seen to be more engaged with their son’s lives as they believed that sons need a father more as a role model compared to daughters (Vyas & Bano, 2016). This may be due to the Asian mindset where sons need more independence while daughters need more emotional support (Vyas & Bano, 2016). Further research should explore more into how this gender-based mindset was ingrained into the father’s mind to understand how such a mindset can influence parenting. Both grandfathers and fathers also expressed how they have adjusted their parenting to focus on skills sets or teachings they believe will ultimately benefit the child in the future, exemplifying how child variables can result in a constant adjustment in parenting.

Therapeutic Implications

This study has shown that fathers’ parenting approaches are greatly influenced by their own fathers’ child-rearing approaches. In dual-income families, as grandparents are playing a huge role in childcare duties, family therapists and other professionals should engage in intergenerational approach to support families. Especially grandfathers in this study subtly share about how they are trying to adjust with the changing times to provide their best in looking after their grandkids. It is important that grandfathers are appreciated, acknowledged, and engaged in childcare activities. Especially in the Asian context, fathers have relatively lower level of involvement in childcare activities; this study highlights the need of engaging both fathers and grandfathers in family-based interventions.

Implications for Future Research

This study included fathers and grandfathers from three ethnicities: Chinese, Malay, and Indian. Future researchers could aim to further broaden their perspectives by including more fathers from other ethnicities. Future research could also be done on the intergenerational benefits of parenting to help therapists develop educational or supportive programs for both fathers and grandfathers. Health care professionals can bridge the gap between the two generations of fathers by encouraging them to work closely together in the childcare activities. This study focused only on the effect of father–grandfather relationship on parenting. Future researchers should focus on data triangulation between other dyads, for instance, grandmother and father, grandfather and mother, to explore how they may also affect parenting. This study conducted interviews at one-time point of child’s age. Future research could consider conducting interviews longitudinally to see if paternal perspectives change with the changes in child’s age.

Limitations

Participants may only express views that are deemed socially acceptable rather than their actual practices (Bergen & Labonté, 2019), presenting the presence of social desirability bias. It is also essential to consider that the gender and identity of the researcher (female researcher) might have influenced the information elicited from the sample of participants. There may be a presence of paternalism where participants are restricting information or may distance themselves from expressing certain masculine characteristics that they deem undesirable during the interview (Lefkowich, 2019).

Conclusion

This study provides first-hand views of parenting practices from two generations of fathers in Singapore. The fathers in the study shared how parenting is a constant adaptation and learning process where external influences and knowledge have to be modified according to personal and child’s characteristics. With the understanding of how parenting is closely connected between two generations, health care professionals and therapists could work with intergenerations to make intentional inclusion of the two generations of fathers to further promote child-rearing and indirectly influence positive development in child outcomes.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the National University Health System, Research Support Unit, for assistance in the language editing of this manuscript.

Author Contributions

Study design, and manuscript preparation: HE and SS

Data Collection: HE and QW

Data Analysis: HE and SS

Manuscript finalization: HE, QW and SS

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Shefaly Shorey

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