Helicopter Parenting and Chinese Adolescents’ Friendship Quality: The Mediating Role of Dual Autonomy

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the associations between helicopter parenting (HP), dual autonomy, and friendship quality among Chinese high school students. We collected survey data from 959 Chinese high school students and their parents, with separate measures of paternal, maternal and adolescents’ perceptions of HP, as well as measures of adolescents’ dual autonomy and friendship quality. Results showed that (1) paternal, maternal and adolescents’ perceptions of HP were positively associated with adolescents’ friendship quality. (2) Both paternal and adolescents’ perceptions of HP were positively associated with adolescents’ dual autonomy, while no significant association was found between maternal HP and adolescents’ dual autonomy. (3) Relating autonomy was positively associated with friendship quality, while no significant association was found between individuating autonomy and friendship quality. (4) Relating autonomy mediated the relation between paternal HP and adolescents’ friendship quality, and between adolescents’ perceptions of HP and friendship quality.

Keywords

helicopter parenting dual autonomy friendship quality parent-child dyadic data Chinese families

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Bandura

(1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.

Beckert

T. E.

(2007). Cognitive autonomy and self-evaluation in adolescence: A conceptual investigation and instrument development. North American Journal of Psychology, 9(3), 579–594.

Bedford

Yeh

K.-H.

(2019). The history and the future of the psychology of filial piety: Chinese norms to contextualized personality construct. Frontiers in Psychology, 10(100), 100. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00100

Beyers

Goossens

Vansant

Moors

(2003). A structural model of autonomy in middle and late adolescence: Connectedness, separation, detachment, and agency. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32(5), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024922031510

Carr

V. M.

Francis

A. P.

Wieth

M. B.

(2021). The relationship between helicopter parenting and fear of negative evaluation in college students. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30(8), 1910–1919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-01999-z

Chen

F. F.

(2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(3), 464–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705510701301834

Chen-Bouck

Patterson

M. M.

Chen

(2019). Relations of collectivism socialization goals and training beliefs to Chinese parenting. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 50(3), 396–418. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118822046

Chuang

S. S.

Glozman

Green

D. S.

Rasmi

(2018). Parenting and family relationships in Chinese families: A critical ecological approach. Journal of Family Theory & Review, 10(2), 367–383. https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12257

Chung

C. Y.

(2016). The relationship between “Helicopter Parenting” and positive youth development among college students in Hong Kong. Doctoral dissertation. The Chinese University of Hong Kong.

10.

Chung

Phillips

Jensen

T. M.

Lanier

(2020). Parental involvement and adolescents’ academic achievement: Latent profiles of mother and father warmth as a moderating influence. Family Process, 59(2), 772–788. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12450

11.

Craig

Kuykendall

(2019). Examining the role of friendship for employee well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115, Article 103313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.06.001

12.

Cui

Hong

Jiao

(2022). Overparenting and emerging adult development: A systematic review. Emerging Adulthood, 10(5), 1076–1094. https://doi.org/10.1177/21676968221108828

13.

Day

R. D.

Padilla-Walker

L. M.

(2009). Mother and father connectedness and involvement during early adolescence. Journal of Family Psychology: JFP: Journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association (Division 43), 23(6), 900–904. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016438

14.

Dou

Shek

D. T. L.

Kwok

K. H. R.

(2020). Perceived paternal and maternal parenting attributes among Chinese adolescents: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(23), 8741. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17238741

15.

Ferguson

S. M.

Ryan

A. M.

(2019). It’s lonely at the top: Adolescent students’ peer-perceived popularity and self-perceived social contentment. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48(2), 341–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-018-0970-y

16.

Fingerman

K. L.

Cheng

Y.-P.

Wesselmann

E. D.

Zarit

Furstenberg

Birditt

K. S.

(2012). Helicopter parents and landing pad kids: Intense parental support of grown children. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 74(4), 880–896. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2012.00987.x

17.

Hayes

A. F.

Preacher

K. J.

(2010). Quantifying and testing indirect effects in simple mediation models when the constituent paths are nonlinear. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 45(4), 627–660. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2010.498290

18.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

19.

Hwang

Jung

Zhang

Lee

S.-A.

Lee

Y. M.

Lee

You

H.-K.

Kang

(2022). Typologies of helicopter parenting in American and Chinese young-adults’ game and social media addictive behaviors. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 31(4), 1030–1044. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-021-02213-w

20.

Jiang

Dong

(2022). Association between deprivation and cognitive ability among Chinese adolescents: Examining the mechanisms of parental involvement in a rural–urban dual system. Current Psychology, 41(7), 4602–4611. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00981-0

21.

Jung

Hwang

Kim

Sin

Zhao

Zhang

Park

J. H.

(2020). Helicopter parenting, autonomy support, and student wellbeing in the United States and South Korea. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(2), 358–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01601-7

22.

Kagitcibasi

(2005). Autonomy and relatedness in cultural context: Implications for self and family. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(4), 403–422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022105275959

23.

Karaer

Akdemir

(2019). Parenting styles, perceived social support and emotion regulation in adolescents with internet addiction. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 92, 22–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.comppsych.2019.03.003

24.

Kiuru

Wang

M.-T.

Salmela-Aro

Kannas

Ahonen

Hirvonen

(2019). Associations between adolescents’ interpersonal relationships, school well-being, and academic achievement during educational transitions. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(5), 1057–1072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-01184-y

25.

Kline

R. B.

(2023). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford publications.

26.

Kochendorfer

L. B.

Kerns

K. A.

(2019). A meta‐analysis of friendship qualities and romantic relationship outcomes in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence: The Official Journal of the Society for Research on Adolescence, 30(1), 4–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12505

27.

Kopecka-Piech

Burno-Kaliszuk

Teichert

(2023). Supporting parents in acquiring (self) regulatory competence in the use of media technologies by family members. The case of programmes, projects and activities applied in Poland. International perspectives on parenting support and parental participation in children and family services .

28.

Kouros

C. D.

Pruitt

M. M.

Ekas

N. V.

Kiriaki

Sunderland

(2017). Helicopter parenting, autonomy support, and college students’ mental health and well-being: The moderating role of sex and ethnicity. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(3), 939–949. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-016-0614-3

29.

Kwon

K. A.

Yoo

Bingham

G. E.

(2015). Helicopter parenting in emerging adulthood: Support or barrier for Korean college students’ psychological adjustment? Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(1), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0195-6

30.

Lan

Scrimin

Moscardino

(2019). Perceived parental guan and school adjustment among Chinese early adolescents: The moderating role of interdependent self-construal. Journal of Adolescence, 71, 18–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2018.12.003

31.

LeMoyne

Buchanan

(2011). Does “HOVERING” matter? Helicopter parenting and its effect on well-being. Sociological Spectrum, 31(4), 399–418. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732173.2011.574038

32.

Leung

J. T. Y.

(2020). Too much of a good thing: Perceived overparenting and wellbeing of Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Child Indicators Research, 13(5), 1791–1809. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12187-020-09720-0

33.

Leung

J. T. Y.

Shek

D. T. L.

Fung

A. L. C.

Leung

G. S. M.

(2020). Perceived overparenting and developmental outcomes among Chinese adolescents: Do family structure and conflicts matter? Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 38(2), 742–764. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265407520971713

34.

Little

T. D.

Cunningham

W. A.

Shahar

Widaman

K. F.

(2002). To parcel or not to parcel: Exploring the question, weighing the merits. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9(2), 151–173. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_1

35.

Yang

K.-S.

(2006). Emergence and composition of the traditional-modern bicultural self of people in contemporary Taiwanese societies. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9(3), 167–175. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839x.2006.00195.x

36.

Leahy

K. E.

Chopik

W. J.

(2021). Friendship importance around the world: Links to cultural factors, health, and well-being. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 570839. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570839

37.

Luebbe

A. M.

Mancini

K. J.

Kiel

E. J.

Spangler

B. R.

Semlak

J. L.

Fussner

L. M.

(2018). Dimensionality of helicopter parenting and relations to emotional, decision-making, and academic functioning in emerging adults. Assessment, 25(7), 841–857. https://doi.org/10.1177/107319111666590

38.

Mathijs

Mouton

Zimmermann

Van Petegem

(2024). Overprotective parenting and social anxiety in adolescents: The role of emotion regulation. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 41(2), 413–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/02654075231173722

39.

Odenweller

K. G.

Booth-Butterfield

Weber

(2014). Investigating helicopter parenting, family environments, and relational outcomes for millennials. Communication Studies, 65(4), 407–425. https://doi.org/10.1080/10510974.2013.811434

40.

Padilla-Walker

L. M.

Nelson

L. J.

(2012). Black hawk down? Establishing helicopter parenting as a distinct construct from other forms of parental control during emerging adulthood. Journal of Adolescence, 35(5), 1177–1190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.03.007

41.

Padilla-Walker

L. M.

Son

Nelson

L. J.

(2021). Profiles of helicopter parenting, parental warmth, and psychological control during emerging adulthood. Emerging Adulthood, 9(2), 132–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696818823626

42.

Rose

A. J.

Borowski

S. K.

Spiekerman

Smith

R. L.

(2022). Children’s friendships. In Smith

P. K.

Hart

C. H.

(Eds.), The wiley‐blackwell handbook of childhood social development (pp. 487–502). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119679028.ch26

43.

Rote

W. M.

Olmo

Feliscar

Jambon

M. M.

Ball

C. L.

Smetana

J. G.

(2020). Helicopter parenting and perceived overcontrol by emerging adults: A family-level profile analysis. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 29(11), 3153–3168. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01824-z

44.

Ryan

K. M.

Zimmer-Gembeck

M. J.

Speechley

Stuart

Soenens

Zimmermann

Van Petegem

(2024). Identifying correlates of demanding and responsive features in helicopter and overprotective parenting. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 33(9), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-024-02896-x

45.

Ryan

R. M.

Deci

E. L.

(2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. The American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68

46.

Schwartz-Mette

R. A.

Shankman

Dueweke

A. R.

Borowski

Rose

A. J.

(2020). Relations of friendship experiences with depressive symptoms and loneliness in childhood and adolescence: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 146(8), 664–700. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000239

47.

Schacter

H. L.

Lessard

L. M.

Kiperman

Bakth

Ehrhardt

Uganski

(2021). Can friendships protect against the health consequences of peer victimization in adolescence? A systematic review. School Mental Health, 13(3), 578–601. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-021-09417-x

48.

Schiffrin

H. H.

Erchull

M. J.

Sendrick

Yost

J. C.

Power

Saldanha

E. R.

(2019). The effects of maternal and paternal helicopter parenting on the self-determination and well-being of emerging adults. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 28(12), 3346–3359. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-019-01513-6

49.

Schiffrin

H. H.

Liss

(2017). The effects of helicopter parenting on academic motivation. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(5), 1472–1480. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0658-z

50.

Smetana

J. G.

Campione‐Barr

Daddis

(2004). Longitudinal development of family decision making: Defining healthy behavioral autonomy for middle‐class African American adolescents. Child Development, 75(5), 1418–1434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00749.x

51.

Srivastav

Mathur

M. L.

(2021). Helicopter parenting and adolescent development: From the perspective of mental health. In Benedetto

Ingrassia

(Eds.), Parenting: Studies by an ecocultural and transactional perspective (pp. 71–90). Intech Open.

52.

van Ingen

D. J.

Freiheit

S. R.

Steinfeldt

J. A.

Moore

L. L.

Wimer

D. J.

Knutt

A. D.

Roberts

(2015). Helicopter parenting: The effect of an overbearing caregiving style on peer attachment and self‐efficacy. Journal of College Counseling, 18(1), 7–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-1882.2015.00065.x

53.

Vigdal

J. S.

Brønnick

K. K.

(2022). A systematic review of “helicopter parenting” and its relationship with anxiety and depression. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 872981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.872981

54.

Wang

Hawk

S. T.

(2023). Adolescent-mother agreements and discrepancies in reports of helicopter parenting: Associations with perceived conflict and support. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 52(12), 2480–2493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01831-5

55.

Wang

Huebner

E. S.

Tian

(2021). Parent-child cohesion, self-esteem, and academic achievement: The longitudinal relations among elementary school students. Learning and Instruction, 73, Article 101467. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2021.101467

56.

C. W.

Guo

N. W.

Hsieh

Y. S.

Yeh

K. H.

(2015). The facilitating effect of need-supportive parenting on the change rate and adaptation of dual autonomy among Taiwanese adolescents. Swiss Journal of Psychology, 74(4), 181–195. https://doi.org/10.1024/1421-0185/a000161

57.

Zhang

Wang

(2023). Associations between profiles of helicopter parenting and decisional procrastination among Chinese adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 52(6), 1219–1234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-023-01764-z

58.

Xiang

Liu

Sun

(2022). The longitudinal associations between perceived maternal parenting practices, mother–adolescent relationship quality, and friendship quality. Journal of Adolescence, 95(1), 70–81. https://doi.org/10.1002/jad.12098

59.

Yeh

Bedford

Yang

(2009). A cross‐cultural comparison of the coexistence and domain superiority of individuating and relating autonomy. International journal of psychology: Journal international de psychologie, 44(3), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590701749146

60.

Yeh

K. H.

Liu

Y. L.

Huang

H. S.

Yang

Y. J.

(2007). Individuating and relating autonomy in culturally Chinese adolescents. In Ward

J. A. B.

Liu

Bernardo

A. B. I.

Karasawa

Fischer

(Eds.), Progress in Asian social psychology: Contributions on Asian social psychology (5, pp. 123–146). Marshall Cavendish Academic.

61.

Yeh

K.-H.

Yang

Y.-J.

(2006). Construct validation of individuating and relating autonomy orientations in culturally Chinese adolescents. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 9(2), 148–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-839x.2006.00192.x

62.

Zhang

(2023). Overparenting and offspring depression, anxiety, and internalizing symptoms: A meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 36(3), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1017/S095457942300055X

63.

Zhang

(2020). Shadow education in the service of tiger parenting: Strategies used by middle‐class families in China. European Journal of Education, 55(3), 388–404. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejed.12414

64.

Zhang

X.-Y.

Zhang

J.-W.

Bian

Y.-F.

(2022). The associations of parental child-based worth, helicopter parenting, and parent–child relationship in adolescents: An actor–partner interdependence mediation model. In Abstracts of the 24th national conference of psychology (pp. 104–105).

65.

Zong

Hawk

S. T.

(2022). Evaluating the structure and correlates of helicopter parenting in mainland China. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 31(9), 2436–2453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-022-02370-6

66.

Zou

(1998). The function of peer relationships and its influencing factors. Psychological Development and Education, 14(2), 39–44. [in Chinese]. https://doi.org/10.16187/j.cnki.issn10014918.1998.02.009