Little is known about how parents of preschool-aged children engage in conversations around race and ethnicity, and their perceptions of how these conversations influence children’s self-esteem. Parents (N = 16) of children ages 3–5 were interviewed for 30–60 min about their perspectives on how ethnic racial socialization contributes to their child’s overall social-emotional development, including self-esteem. Most participants were women (n = 13; 81%), White (n = 9; 56%), followed by Black/African American (n = 6; 38%), with an average age of 36.06 years (SD = 6.14). Interviews were coded using a hybrid approach; first, deductively, in which pre-determined codes were identified using preexisting theory on self-esteem, and then inductively, using thematic analysis. Results revealed the following main themes: (1) Encouragement of racial pride, (2) Teaching about White privilege, (3) Providing a space for emotional resiliency, (4) Protecting against racial discrimination, and (5) Promoting social acceptance and inclusion. Themes differed for parents of children of color versus White children.
AndersonR. E.StevensonH. C. (2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. American Psychologist, 74(1), 63.
2.
BeanR. A.NorthrupJ. C. (2009). Parental psychological control, psychological autonomy, and acceptance as predictors of self-esteem in Latino adolescents. Journal of Family Issues, 30(11), 1486–1504. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X09339149
3.
BellL. M.VerdezotoC.LardierD. T.HerreraA.Garcia-ReidP.ReidR. J. (2025). Exploring the role of ethnic identity, attachment, and family prosocial opportunities on BIPOC adolescents’ anxiety and depression. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 13(2), 1038–1052. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-025-02313-z
4.
BennerA. D.WangY.ShenY.BoyleA. E.PolkR.ChengY.-P. (2018). Racial/ethnic discrimination and well-being during adolescence: A meta-analytic review. American Psychologist, 73(7), 855–883. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000204
5.
BergerR. (2015). Now I see it, now I don’t: Researcher’s position and reflexivity in qualitative research. Qualitative Research, 15(2), 219–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794112468475
6.
BraceyJ. R.BámacaM. Y.Umaña-TaylorA. J. (2004). Examining ethnic identity and self-esteem among biracial and monoracial adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(2), 123–132. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOYO.0000013424.93635.68
7.
BraunV.ClarkeV. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative research in psychology, 3(2), 77–101.
8.
BrownD. L. (2008). African American resiliency: Examining racial socialization and social support as protective factors. Journal of Black Psychology, 34(1), 32–48. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798407310538
9.
BruceT. (2009). Early childhood: A guide for students. Sage.
10.
BurkeN.RizzoM. T.BrittonT. C.RhodesM. (2023). Does racial diversity affect White children’s racial bias and reasoning? Depends on where they live and how their social world is structured. Developmental Psychology, 59(11), 2094–2104. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0001644
11.
Butler-BarnesS. T.LeathS.WilliamsA.ByrdC.CarterR.ChavousT. M. (2018). Promoting resilience among African American girls: Racial identity as a protective factor. Child Development, 89(6), e552–e571. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12995
12.
BynumM. S.KotchickB. A. (2006). Mother-adolescent relationship quality and autonomy as predictors of psychosocial adjustment among African American adolescents. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 15(5), 528–541. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-006-9035-z
13.
CasseusM. (2024). Racial and ethnic disparities in unmet need for mental health care among children: A nationally representative study. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 11(6), 3489–3497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-023-01801-4
14.
CaughyM. O.O’CampoP. J.RandolphS. M.NickersonK. (2002). The influence of racial socialization practices on the cognitive and behavioral competence of African American preschoolers. Child Development, 73(5), 1611–1625. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00493
15.
CaughyM. O.OwenM. T. (2015). Cultural socialization and school readiness of African American and Latino preschoolers. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(3), 391–399. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037928
ChandlerP. (1995). Improving Black students’ self esteem, self confidence, and pride through parental participation, teacher and student education. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED386317
18.
CoardS. I.KiangL.Martin RomeroM. Y.GonzalezL. M.SteinG. L. (2024). Talking through the tough: Identifying facilitating factors to preparation for bias and racial–ethnic discrimination conversations among families from minoritized ethnic–racial groups. Family Process, 63(3), 1288–1303. https://doi.org/10.1111/famp.12878
19.
CollC. G.LambertyG.JenkinsR.McAdooH. P.CrnicK.WasikB. H.GarcíaH. V. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.1996.tb01834.x
20.
CongC. W.LingW. S.AunT. S. (2021). Problem-focused coping and depression among adolescents: Mediating effect of self-esteem. Current Psychology, 40(11), 5587–5594. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00522-4
21.
ConnollyP. (2002). Racism, gender identities and young children: Social relations in a multi-ethnic, inner city primary school. Routledge.
22.
Copenhaver-JohnsonJ. (2006). Talking to children about race: The importance of inviting difficult conversations. Childhood education, 83(1), 12–22.
23.
Coyne-BeasleyT.MillerE.SvetazM. V. (2024). Racism, identity-based discrimination, and intersectionality in adolescence. Academic Pediatrics, 24(7S), S152–S160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2024.02.009
24.
DunbarA. S.HaRim AhnL.CoatesE. E.Smith-BynumM. A. (2022). Observed dyadic racial socialization disrupts the association between frequent discriminatory experiences and emotional reactivity among Black adolescents. Child Development, 93(1), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13680
25.
DunbarA. S.PerryN. B.CavanaughA. M.LeerkesE. M. (2015). African American parents’ racial and emotion socialization profiles and young adults’ emotional adaptation. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(3), 409–419. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037546
26.
FeaginJ. R.Van AusdaleD. (2001). The first R: How children learn race and racism. Bloomsbury Publishing USA.
27.
FeredayJ.Muir-CochraneE. (2006). Demonstrating rigor using thematic analysis: A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive coding and theme development. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 5(1), 80–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940690600500107
28.
FreemanM.MartinezA.RavalV. V. (2022). What do White parents teach youth about race? Qualitative examination of White racial socialization. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32(3), 847–862. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12782
29.
GalánC. A.SavellS.WilsonM.ShawD. S. (2022). An observational approach to examining White parents’ racial socialization practices with adolescent youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 32(3), 883–895. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12766
30.
Gillen-O’NeelC.HuynhV. W.HazelbakerT.HarrisonA. (2022). From kindness and diversity to justice and action: White parents’ ethnic–racial socialization goals. Journal of Family Issues, 43(4), 944–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X21996392
31.
HareB. R. (1977). Black and White child self-esteem in social science: An overview. The Journal of Negro Education, 46(2), 141–156. https://doi.org/10.2307/2966617
32.
Harris-BrittA.ValrieC. R.Kurtz-CostesB.RowleyS. J. (2007). Perceived racial discrimination and self-esteem in African American youth: Racial socialization as a protective factor. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 17(4), 669–682. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2007.00540.x
33.
HarterS. (2015). The construction of the self, second edition: Developmental and sociocultural foundations. Guilford Publications.
34.
HernándezM. M.RobinsR. W.WidamanK. F.CongerR. D. (2017). Ethnic pride, self-esteem, and school belonging: A reciprocal analysis over time. Developmental Psychology, 53(12), 2384–2396. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000434
35.
HosogiM.OkadaA.FujiiC.NoguchiK.WatanabeK. (2012). Importance and usefulness of evaluating self-esteem in children. BioPsychoSocial Medicine, 6(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0759-6-9
36.
HughesD.WitherspoonD.Rivas-DrakeD.West-BeyN. (2009). Received ethnic–racial socialization messages and youths’ academic and behavioral outcomes: Examining the mediating role of ethnic identity and self-esteem. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(2), 112–124. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015509
37.
KuangL.NishikawaS. (2021). Ethnic socialization, ethnic identity, and self-esteem in Chinese Mulao adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.730478
38.
Lewis-ColesM. E. L.ConstantineM. G. (2006). Racism-related stress, Africultural coping, and religious problem-solving among African Americans. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 12(3), 433–443. https://doi.org/10.1037/1099-9809.12.3.433
39.
LloydV. W. (2022). Black dignity: The struggle against domination. Yale University Press.
MasselinkM.Van RoekelE.HankinB. L.KeijsersL.LodderG. M. A.VanhalstJ.VerhagenM.YoungJ. F.OldehinkelA. J. (2018). The longitudinal association between self‐esteem and depressive symptoms in adolescents: Separating between‐person effects from within‐person effects. European Journal of Personality, 32(6), 653–671. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2179
McDonaldA. R.GloverB. A.GoldsteinO. C.WitherspoonD. P. (2025). The contextualized impact of ethnic-racial socialization on Black and Latino youth’s self-esteem and ethnic-racial identity. Behavioral Sciences, 15(11), 1437. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15111437
44.
MorrisonJ. W. (1995). Developing identity formation and self‐concept in preschool‐aged biracial children. Early Child Development and Care, 111(1), 141–152.
45.
MurryV. M.BerkelC.BrodyG. H.MillerS. J.ChenY.-F. (2009). Linking parental socialization to interpersonal protective processes, academic self-presentation, and expectations among rural African American youth. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 15(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013180
46.
NeblettE. W.Jr.Rivas-DrakeD.Umaña-TaylorA. J. (2012). The promise of racial and ethnic protective factors in promoting ethnic minority youth development. Child Development Perspectives, 6(3), 295–303. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2012.00239.x
47.
PallasA. M.EntwisleD. R.AlexanderK. L.WeinsteinP. (1990). Social structure and the development of self-esteem in young children. Social Psychology Quarterly, 53(4), 302–315. https://doi.org/10.2307/2786736
48.
PalsJ. L. (2006). Narrative identity processing of difficult life experiences: Pathways of personality development and positive self-transformation in adulthood. Journal of Personality, 74(4), 1079–1109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2006.00403.x
49.
Pernice-DucaF.OwensD. (2010). Racial/ethnic socialization messages, social support, and personal efficacy among adolescents. Mid-Western Educational Researcher, 23(4), 7. https://scholarworks.bgsu.edu/mwer/vol23/iss4/7.
50.
PriestN.DoeryK.LimC. K.LawrenceJ. A.ZoumboulisG.KingG.LamisaD.HeF.WijesuriyaR.MateoC. M.ChongS.TruongM.PerryR.KingP. T.PakiN. P.JosephC.PagramD.LekamgeR. B.MikolajczakG.GuoS. (2024). Racism and health and wellbeing among children and youth–An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2024.117324
51.
RaabeT.BeelmannA. (2011). Development of ethnic, racial, and national prejudice in childhood and adolescence: A multinational meta-analysis of age differences. Child development, 82(6), 1715–1737.
52.
RazakH. A.MacLeodC.RudaizkyD.NotebaertL. (2025). The role of emotion regulation in distinct measures of emotional resilience. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 49(4), 748–768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608-025-10581-6
53.
ReitzA. K. (2022). Self-esteem development and life events: A review and integrative process framework. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 16(11), Article e12709. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12709
54.
RobsonD. A.AllenM. S.HowardS. J. (2020). Self-regulation in childhood as a predictor of future outcomes: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 146(4), 324–354. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000227
55.
SmithC. P. (1992). Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis. Cambridge University Press.
56.
SpencerM. B. (1985). Cultural cognition and social cognition as identity correlates of Black children’s personal-social development. In MargaretB. S.GeraldineK. B.WalterR. A. (Eds.), Beginnings: The social and affective development of Black children (pp. 215–230). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
57.
SurzykiewiczJ.SkalskiS. B.SołbutA.RutkowskiS.KonaszewskiK. (2022). Resilience and regulation of emotions in adolescents: Serial mediation analysis through self-esteem and the perceived social support. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(13), 8007. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19138007
58.
SwansonD. P.CunninghamM.YoungbloodJ.SpencerM. B. (2009). Racial identity development during childhood. In HelenA. N.BridgetteM. T.ShawnO. U. (Eds.), Handbook of African American Psychology (pp. 269–281). Sage.
59.
ThomannC. R. B.SuyemotoK. L. (2018). Developing an antiracist stance: How White youth understand structural racism. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 38(6), 745–771. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431617692443
60.
ThompsonJ. (2023). Progressive familial socialization and white partisans’ racial attitudes. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 11(1), 123–142. https://doi.org/10.1080/21565503.2021.1932529
61.
UglanovaE. (2024). Self-confidence. In MagginoF. (Ed.), Encyclopedia of quality of life and well-being research (pp. 6226–6229). Springer International Publishing.
62.
Umaña‐TaylorA. J.HillN. E. (2020). Ethnic–racial socialization in the family: A decade’s advance on precursors and outcomes. Journal of Marriage and Family, 82(1), 244–271. https://doi.org/10.1111/jomf.12622
van der CruijsenR.BlankensteinN. E.SpaansJ. P.PetersS.CroneE. A. (2023). Longitudinal self-concept development in adolescence. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 18(1), nsac062. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsac062
65.
VittrupB. (2018). Color blind or color conscious? White American mothers’ approaches to racial socialization. Journal of Family Issues, 39(3), 668–692. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192513X16676858
66.
WangM.-T.HenryD. A.SmithL. V.HuguleyJ. P.GuoJ. (2020). Parental ethnic-racial socialization practices and children of color’s psychosocial and behavioral adjustment: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The American Psychologist, 75(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000464
67.
WhiteA.WanlessS. B. (2019). P.R.I.D.E.: Positive racial identity development in early education. Journal of Curriculum, Teaching, Learning an Leadership in Education, 4(2), 9. https://doi.org/10.32873/uno.dc.ctlle.04.02.1074
68.
WilsonS. (2018). Racial socialization, ethnic identity, and cross ethnic relationships.
69.
YasuiM. (2015). A review of the empirical assessment of processes in ethnic–racial socialization: Examining methodological advances and future areas of development. Developmental Review, 37, 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2015.03.001
70.
ZaffJ. F.HairE. C. (2003). Positive development of the self: Self-concept, self-esteem, and identity. In BornsteinM. H.DavidsonL.KeyesC. L. M.MooreK. A. (Eds.), Well-being: Positive Development across the Life Course (pp. 235–251). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
