Abstract
This qualitative, narrative study explored experiences of six successful African American male high school students. Findings suggested that barriers prior to high school were negative elements in the home and community. To be successful in high school, they overcame barriers of absent fathers, disruptive homes, negative community, and peers, and an inadequate school system. They found support in spirituality, a desire to make mother proud, and from school personnel. Personal characteristics contributing to their success included self-esteem, spiritual maturity, and inner motivation to succeed.
African American males face challenging social issues such as low high school retention rates, incarceration, suspension or expulsion, negative media perceptions, adverse health conditions, drug and alcohol abuse, and stereotype threats that often impede their academic achievement and lead to economic hardships (Davis, 2003; Graves, 2008; Hare & Hare, 2008; Morial, 2007; Theoharis, 2009). In addition, more than two thirds of African American males who begin college never finish (Harper, 2012). Most researchers have neglected to address studies that identify African American males who are confronting these social issues and building social networks while working toward academic and social success (García, Pearson, & Jiménez, 1994). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the life experiences of six African American male students who have been successful in high school.
Background
Based on data from the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), a nationally representative and continuing assessor of academic achievement in the United States, African American students performed at unacceptable levels (U.S. Department of Education, 2007a). Specifically, only 12% of African American fourth graders could read at a proficient or advanced level. In mathematics, the NAEP reported that African American fourth graders also demonstrated less than stellar outcomes. Nationally, 37% of African American children performed at below basic level in mathematics. In states where there were high numbers of African American children, the scores were even worse; Mississippi students scored 45% below basic, Alabama 50% below basic, and in Louisiana 40% scored below basic (U.S. Department of Education, 2007b).
In addition, Kunjufu (2011) reported that only 12% of African American males are proficient in reading, 80% of African American male students are in special education, and 53% of African American males drop out of high school. The Schott Foundation for Public Education (2010) report revealed that the overall 2007/2008 graduation rate for African American males in the United States was only 47%. Less than 8% of African American males between the ages of 15 and 29 years were college graduates. This is in comparison to 17% of European Americans and 35% of Asian American males in this age group. African American men were disproportionately represented in the criminal justice system as well. The study showed that while African American males aged 15 to 29 years represented 14% of the United States general population, they represented approximately 40% of individuals who were incarcerated.
Many African American male students are being born to cocaine-/crack-addicted mothers, mothers who are involved in prostitution, are living in poverty, or have parents who over use alcohol. In fact, nearly one quarter (22%) of children in African American female-headed families fail to complete high school; thus, their households live below the poverty line, cannot afford insurance, and rely on some form of government assistance (Jones, Zalot, Foster, Starrett, & Chester, 2006). African American adolescent males living in urban public housing may be influenced by both promoting and inhibiting aspects of their communities. Thus, African American males need an array of internal resources in addition to supportive families and communities to avoid the risk of not being successful and achieving the will to survive and become productive members of society (Dodge & Frame, 1982; National Urban League, 2007).
Kunjufu (2004) emphasized a major contributing factor that African American males and the African American community are facing is “fatherlessness” (p. x). Noguera (2008) addressed the effects of African American male students growing up in isolated, urban, economically deprived areas and suggested these students need more support and warrant greater concern than other groups of students. Berry (2005) reported that African American male students are often misrepresented and viewed as underachievers and thus placed in low ability groups. This causes them to be overlooked for Gifted and Talented (G/T) testing and upper level mathematics classes; in fact, many are identified as Special Education students.
Gibbs (1988, 2010) emphasized that African American male students are victims of 200-plus years of slavery, legally enforced segregation, and decades of racial discrimination and prejudice in every aspect of their American life. Increased isolation from the African American middle class and alienation from the Caucasian community have led to African American inner-city ghettos. Within these ghettos, African American youth have few, if any, positive role models, where they lack access to high-quality education, or adequate transportation to locate jobs. Thus, Duncan (2002) reported that African American male students have been called a “strange population” (p. 133). Often these students are harshly considered a group that is “beyond love and excluded from society’s economy and status of care and thus expelled from useful participation in social life” (p. 133). In fact, Noguera (2008) argued that dealing with African American male students is a challenge in and of itself.
B. D. Tatum (1997) argued that negative racial perceptions result from stereotypes and distortions made about others sometimes from what has been told or seen through the media, but also from “what we have not been told” (p. 4). B. D. Tatum shared the example of a young high school English teacher dismayed that she had never been exposed to Black authors in previous classes. A White male student in the class noted this was because “Blacks don’t write books” (p. 5). Too often, individuals who are members of the stereotyped group internalize those negative perceptions about their own group. This process is called internalized oppression and it can exacerbate the difficulty that African American males have in becoming successful in the school setting. In fact, Wright (2011) noted that African American males have a tendency to take their cues of how to act and what they should become from the community, an example of internalized oppression. Researchers have documented that African American adolescents have been influenced by negative perceptions of themselves by school officials and their communities (Jones et al., 2006; Kunjufu, 2004). Consequently, Kunjufu (2011) noted that African American male students have not felt a connection to their schools for some time.
Considering how African American males are viewed based on the design of the American school systems, traditional and routine treatment of African American students heightens their problems even more. These treatments of African American students are based on negative perceptions and have been extremely harmful to the education of African American males (B. D. Tatum, 1997; Tucker, Dixon, & Griddine, 2010). Spurgeon and Myers (2010) noted that manifestations of African American masculinity are often viewed as oppositional to the culture of the school. Examples of negative perceptions regarding these behaviors can include attire (e.g., beltless pants hanging below the waist), language (e.g., the manner in which young African American males talk, incorporating rapping), and the use of soulful handshakes as a form of greeting. Negative stereotypes, overt and covert discrimination, and a history of prejudices have combined to create social and psychological disengagement, substance abuse, depression, suicide, and other forms of violence among young African American males.
Therefore, when school personnel respond negatively to the personal presentation styles of young African American males (e.g., walking, glances, dress, hair) by imposing strict rules and prohibitions, they are communicating a message of rejection, which can contribute to students’ psychological discomfort and low academic achievement (Howard, 2008). Thus, they are often viewed by school administration and teachers with the negative perception of not being as interested in education as their Caucasian peers (Brown, 2009). In fact, Noguera (2008) noted that some individuals believe that many African American male students will ultimately end up in prison. Based on this view, African American male students who are interested in their education may not get the instruction and support they need in school because of these negative viewpoints (Roderick, 2003, Worrell, 2003).
Wright (2007, 2009) suggested that this negative treatment can, in turn, contribute to the development of cynical attitudes on the part of young African American males with regard to school and their place in it. School personnel who are unaware that these expressions of African American masculinity might be coping mechanisms to mask self-doubt, insecurity, and/or inner turmoil often respond with suspicion, fear, and negativity. Yet when school personnel understood that the cool pose can convey pride, strength, and control, as well as serve as a strategy for coping with oppression, invisibility, and marginality, they were more apt to view these behaviors positively and recognize them as a source of resiliency that young African American males employ to counter the negative forces in their lives.
Purpose Statement and Research Questions
The purpose of this research study was to investigate the life experiences of African American males successful in high school who are without a father figure in the home. Specific research questions investigated the following:
What challenges have successful students experienced prior to entering high school?
What barriers were overcome to be successful in high school?
What kinds of supports were received from peers, teachers, community, and family to be successful?
What personal characteristics did students possess that contributed to their success?
Theoretical Framework
Coleman’s (1988) theory of social capital is important for understanding how social structures such as school support systems are imperative for the academic achievement of African American males. Coleman defined social capital as follows:
Social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity but a variety of different entities, with two characteristics in common: they all consist of some aspect of social structures, and they facilitate certain actions of individuals who are within the structure. Social capital is productive, making possible the achievement of certain ends that would not be attainable in its absence. Social capital, in turn, is created when the relations among persons change in ways that facilitate action. (pp. 302-304)
Coleman (1988) found social capital as an indefinable concept embedded in the structure of relationships between and among individuals. Coleman identified three modes in which social capital is facilitated through relationships: (a) obligations and expectations that are understood and shared among individuals with a solid foundation of trust between them, (b) access to information that they otherwise would not have access to, and (c) a set of norms and sanctions that dictate and encourage individual persons’ behaviors and attitudes. Coleman (1988) suggested that two elements critical to social capital are the trustworthiness of the social environment, which means obligations will be repaid, and the actual extent to which obligations are held. Mutual trust between individuals is imperative to the building of relationships. An example of mutual trust among individuals is the relationship that is formed between teachers and students. Both teachers and students place an extensive amount of trust in one another and build a deep level of respect that they invest in the relationship. Students place their trust in teachers to provide the academic support and resources that will help them achieve academic success. In return for the support and resources provided to students, teachers expect students to use those resources for academic achievement.
Method
This research study used a phenomenological narrative design to describe meaning as it pertains to several individuals and their lived experiences (Creswell, 2007). Maguire (1987) and Park, Brydon-Miller, Hall, and Jackson (1993) noted that phenomenological narrative research gives the participants an opportunity to speak and understand their struggle so that they can begin to ask questions with the end result of gaining answers. Through dialogue, the participants in this study gave voice to those experiences, and they in turn began the process of reflection, analysis, and possibly transformation.
Participants and the Setting
The researcher purposefully selected six African American male students from the seventh-largest school district in the United States. These students were chosen from the high school at which the researcher is an administrator. Of these six students, five of them were on track with their cohort group and the other one was one grade level behind. Four of the students on grade level had varied home environments; one had lived his whole senior year in a shelter and the other one lived in public housing with just his mother and siblings. Two of the participants were raised in a single family home with only their mother and other siblings. These two were prominent athletes in the school. Each had a grade point average of 2.5 or better, a positive reputation in the school, and was committed to attend college. All the subjects selected had already received at least one scholarship offer from a college and without this scholarship would have no way of going to college. All were attending the same urban school district in a low performing school situated in an impoverished area.
The participants shared similar backgrounds, such as being identified as African American and attending public school all 12 years of their life. All the participants were 18 years old and lived in and were educated in the fourth largest city in the United States. All six young men came from households that were at one point or another on public assistance, and one or both parents were missing during periods of the student’s life for various reasons, such as death, drugs, or incarceration. All were accepted to, or planning to attend either a 2-year community college or university. Two were already accepted and attending 4-year universities on full or partial scholarships. Participant information included
Mr. Alpha—lived in shelter with Mother; aspires to attend 4-year university
Mr. Basketball—lived in the projects with Mother; aspires to attend 4-year university
Mr. Geek—lived in an apartment with Mother; aspires to attend 4-year university
Mr. Valedictorian—lived in the projects with Mother; aspires to attend 4-year university
Mr. Motorcycle—lived in the projects with Mother and Grandmother; aspires to attend 2-year university.
Mr. Technology lived in an apartment with Grandmother; aspires to attend 4-year university.
In the community where these young men had grown up, 74% had not attended college (Texas Education Agency, 2011).According to the School Accountability Report Card, the local high school which these young men attended enrolls approximately 927 students, of whom 98% are African American and 2% are other. This high school has not met Annual Yearly Progress goals since its inception in 2003. According to the 2010-2011 Academic Excellence Indicator System Report (Texas Education Agency, 2011), 82.2% of the students at this school are at-risk and the school is rated Academically Unacceptable (AU) which, for the Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) test, means students did not have levels of passing at all grades and all subjects. Additional data reported regarding this high school included, 72.6% graduation rate, 76% economically disadvantaged, 23.5% mobility rate, and the attendance rate was below 80% prior to the 2011-2012 school year.
Data Collection and Analysis
Participation in the study was voluntary and all participants self-selected their pseudonym used in the study to protect their identity. Each individual participated in two one-on-one interviews, each approximately 1 hour in length. The dialogues were conducted and audio-taped in a quiet and comfortable setting at the convenience of the participants. The researcher transcribed each dialogue by hand. Each participant reviewed the transcriptions of the first dialogue and the emerging themes in a second interview. The second interview also was audio-taped and transcribed. During the second interview, the participants discussed the emerging themes from the initial interview and contributed new information that they wanted to add. The second interview was then analyzed for new themes. Following Creswell’s (2007) suggestions for data analysis, all significant statements were listed and given equal worth. In order to synthesize the data clearly, a chart was created by the researcher who grouped these significant statements into meaning units or themes. Finally, the researcher completed the phenomenological data analysis with a composite description that incorporated textural (what experience happened) and structural descriptions (how the experience happened) (Creswell, 2007).
The data were triangulated using various forms of data collected during the study. These included school records, such as grade sheets, interviews, observations, documents, such as letters of college acceptance, and field notes written during and after the interviews by the researcher. Participants reviewed their own transcribed interviews in a process called member checking (Creswell, 2007). The researcher also bracketed her own biases regarding this topic in a process called epoche to further assure trustworthiness and provide credibility (Creswell, 2007).
Findings and Discussion
Findings were condensed into two primary categories for reporting purposes. These two categories were challenges and barriers experienced and supports available from family, peers, community, peers, and themselves.
Challenges and Barriers Experienced
Challenges and barriers experienced included the following: absent fathers, lack of stability in the home, negative elements in the community, and inadequate school experiences.
Absent Fathers
The family structure and background of these students helped them to establish a sense of self-discipline and self-determination. Not having a father figure in the home caused them to have to “grow up” and fend for themselves in ways that other students would not who had a father or father figure there to guide and instruct them. These students all admitted that they did not know how to be a man because they were never taught. Mr. Technology said that not having a genuine father figure in the house hindered him in many ways. He said, “I was forced to grow up from my mom’s perspective on what a man should be, instead of having a good concrete, in-depth, presentation of what a man should be.”
Mr. Basketball noted that he finally found out who his father was when he was 12 years old. He said:
That was a different kind of feeling. I was, like, “Man, I know who my daddy is.” For a long time I got teased about not knowing who my daddy was. I used to play like trying to find out who he was.
The students all acknowledged that they knew who their father was now, but added that he was not a factor in their growing into the person that they are today.
However, despite the absence of a father or father figure, these students learned how to determine right from wrong. They ultimately had to grow up very fast and take on responsibilities that they otherwise would not have had. Mr. Motorcycle and Mr. Alpha noted with pride how they felt when they were able to contribute to the financial stability of the family. These young men had to learn how to focus on the ultimate goal of success, which for them was graduating from high school and going on to college. There were times in school when several of the participants talked about giving up and doing things that could have negatively affected their futures. These negative circumstances included seeing their peers and family members taking drugs, selling drugs, cheating on their school work, running the streets at all times of the day and night, and other behaviors that might land them in jail or much worse, dead. When they started high school, they were not already mentally prepared for the journey. They had to develop those skills by themselves.
The lack of a father’s involvement in their lives often manifested itself in exhibiting inappropriate behavior in school while interacting with their teachers and authority figures. As Mr. Geek put it, being raised in a single-parent home and not having a genuine father in the house “hindered me from having a visual representation of what it means to be a man.” These students were never shown how to deal with situations in a positive fashion from their fathers and sometimes even their mothers because the family dynamics were such that their mothers did not have much involvement in their schooling.
Mr. Geek commented that he had missed out not having a father figure in the home to contribute to his growth and development as a young man. He said, “I used to long for a father when I was younger and I used to always wonder why my father was never around.” He stressed that he did not have memories of playing ball in the yard, fishing trips, or talking about girls, of going to professional football and basketball games with his father, learning how to manicure the lawn, or even change a tire on a car. He stated:
I know this may sound very difficult for some to hear, but I don’t regret any of it. Although my father was not able to be active in my life, this situation helped to shape me into the man I am today.
Mr. Geek added, “I don’t need a father figure to succeed.”
Mr. Basketball often wondered, “why me, why is my life this way?” but he also noted that by not having a father in the home:
I had to be an example to my brothers and, like, just grow up quickly and help out with them, bills and things around the house that otherwise would be left to the father. I think that this helped a whole lot because I love all my brothers and that’s what motivates me to stay in school.
Battle and Scott (2000) studied the effects of mother-only households versus father-only households. They found that there is a direct relationship between a male’s education and their behavior. Males who are raised by their father tend to do better in school. They also noted that mother-only households caused difficulties for the children. However, this study found that while those same negative experiences often caused by a missing father created barriers, these six young men were able to build on this negative and turn it into positive behavior.
Lack of Stability in the Home
All the participants indicated their dissatisfaction with their home life. They had no real stability, parental involvement, or financial support at home. These students never had someone at home waiting for them when they got home from school to help them with their homework. Mr. Basketball commented regarding his home life:
As far as my school work was concerned I really did not have anyone getting on top of me or checking on my stuff, I was on my own without anybody on my back or anybody telling me to do it. I felt that was how it was going be in college so I learned to deal with it.
Oftentimes, they did not go straight home from school and when they did, they had to fend for themselves.
These students had no parental support when it came to their school life. They saw family members doing inappropriate things often in their own homes. All the participants explained that there were times throughout their lives that they had to stay with other family members or friends because the parent or guardian that they were staying with could not provide for them. For example, Mr. Geek recounted a challenge he had to overcome when he was 12 years old, and his mother was really ill and hospitalized for 2 years. He was forced to live with his youngest aunt, who at the time he felt was very irresponsible. Consequently, he said:
I found myself raising myself until my mother came back home. There were little things that I had to find ways to do like I had to find ways to and from school. I had to fend for myself when it came time to eat. I had to get money . . . Nothing illegal, but I had to get money from other sources. And when it came down to doing what was right, I just had to remember that my mom used to always tell me, “When something’s not right, just don’t do it”. . . I kept [those words] close to my heart while she was away and kept my act together.
Mr. Alpha also had to care for an ailing mother. He said that he had to do all the household chores because of his mother’s health and that he did it with a smile while still trying to attend school on a regular basis. Having to care for their mothers caused a strain on these students’ grades and attendance because they were not able to keep up with their school work and then they were sometimes in trouble due to poor attendance.
Both participants who had a sick mother also had siblings for whom they had to care. They had to grow up fast and make decisions for themselves and their siblings also. Mr. Basketball commented that he often had to be the disciplinarian for his younger brother in school. He also had to look at his school work, make sure his sister and brothers had lunch money, and something to eat when they got home from school. Taking care of younger siblings meant that these students had to put their young adult lives on hold and assume extra responsibilities. Being a surrogate parent required these young men to learn how to be role models even if they did not fully understand what being a parent meant themselves. Several of the participants noted they tried to give direction to their younger siblings even though they were lacking direction themselves.
The lack of home support is consistent with the research that Noguera (2008) addressed when he wrote about the effects of African American male students growing up in isolated, urban, economically deprived areas. Noguera suggested these students need more support and warrant greater concern than other groups of students. Additionally, Barr and Parrett (2007) suggested that African American males perform better in school when they spend more time on task and have parents who are actively involved in their schooling, particularly during the preschool years. Lyman and Villani (2002) wrote that poverty, as well as a lack of health care, posed a serious threat to a child’s development, nutrition, early childhood educational activities, and achievement at school. These six young men were challenged in each of these areas, yet they were able to overcome these barriers of lack of home support and poverty to become successful in the school setting.
Negative Influences of Peers and Community
Being accepted into a peer group plays a powerful role in the development of African American males, be it positive or negative influences (Noguera, 2008). Yet Mr. Motorcycle, Mr. Basketball, and Mr. Valedictorian all gave voice to their struggles in different ways from drugs, alcohol, fighting and the street life. They felt they had no community support. Instead, there were only negative influences in their communities. The living conditions were not safe; in fact, sometimes it was unsafe to leave their apartments in the evening or night hours. Mr. Motorcycle specifically commented about having negative influences in the community and in school. For example, he said, “Even the athletes in the school smoked marijuana.”
All the participants identified the community where they lived as a negative influence. There were negative elements around them, such as drug dealers, pimps, and gang members. They noted that even the people in the community would often “talk down” to them and try to get them to do negative things in the streets. Two of the participants reported walking their neighborhoods during the evening hours and seeing inappropriate, dangerous behavior. One participant said he had to “literally step over winos and would see women having relations right in the open.” The young men discussed peers their own age who were being shot and killed on the streets of their neighborhood. Several of the participants talked about not only family members but peers their own age going in and out of jail.
Mr. Valedictorian eloquently described growing up on public-assisted housing as a “humbling experience.” He said:
I had friends who were in and out of jail, some other friends who were murdered. This was just a part of life growing up in the projects. You would see hustlers, pimps, winos, crack heads and all kinds of derelicts around your neighborhood. It was just a way of life and you really had to know what you wanted out of life to make a conscious decision to not go down the same road.
Donovan and Cross (2002) noted that African American males have a higher frequency of negative outcomes, such as high incarceration rates, overrepresentation in special education, and lack of representation in gifted programs when compared with the general populace and suggested that much of this is due to the negative influences from their communities. Yet these six young men were able to rise above the negative community and peer influences.
Inadequate School Experiences
These young men concurred that the school system did not provide the most caring or best teachers in their opinion for students at a school like theirs. Participants emphasized the negative experiences they had in school, commenting they felt a lack of support in the educational system. For example, Mr. Alpha stated, “I tried my hardest and I talked to everyone that I could and I still didn’t get help the two years before Mrs. X came.” Mr. Geek simply said, “a barrier I faced at school would have to be not having adequate teaching.”The students mentioned how some of the teachers thought African Americans “themselves were not culturally sensitive to them.” In fact the young men felt that they were “talked down to” by some teachers, which could have fostered a negative self-worth if it were not for their own determination to succeed.
Each of the participants expressed that they felt the educational system at their school fostered an overall negative expectation system for the students based on many factors, but mostly because they were “Black and poor.” Mr. Basketball stated, “The teachers never said anything to me productive as I was an athlete so they would just do what needed to be done to keep me playing.” This finding regarding a school system that failed to provide the help students needed evidences the work of Croninger and Lee (2001), who contended that from a theoretical vantage point of social capital, an absence of positive social relationships and contacts with teachers denied students resources that might help them develop positively. Yet these young men were able to overcome the lack of support available to them within the school system.
Supports That Students Received
Despite the barriers and challenges that these young men experienced, each of them was able to overcome the difficulties to be successful in school Supports that were available to them included the following: spiritual growth, responsibility to mother, helpful school personnel, and inner motivation to succeed.
Spiritual Growth
The findings in this study agreed with the literature indicating that African Americans tend to have a strong religious orientation and therefore, typically embrace the value of religion, the reliance on a higher power, and the practical application of spiritual principles in life (Cuyjet, 1997; Herndon, 2003; Hrabowski, Maton, & Greif, 1998). Each of these young men reported the importance of their spiritual development and growth. They commented that they reflected deeply and looked to God for the strength and faith to look past negative influences in their lives and negative perceptions of them at school. Their faith in a power other than themselves allowed them to overcome the negative influences that they endured in their community and sometimes also from the one person who was supposed to be there to take care of them, their mothers.
Indeed, the importance of attending some religious establishment was discussed among all the participants. They each indicated that participation in religious practices enhanced their character development and integrity, which helped pave the way for their successful path. For example, Mr. Alpha stressed that going to church helped him to be able to stay focused on the positive attributes that he had in his life and not the negative. Prayer helped him get through all of the hard times and moved him in the right direction in his life and also demonstrated what prayer can do. Mr. Geek stated:
I believe the most important of them all would be the support that came from my faith. Through it all, from when I was younger even until today, my faith is what has kept me standing because there was plenty of times when I felt like I wasn’t going to make it or I wasn’t going to be able to get to where I am today.
Responsibility to Mother
Noguera (2008) and the Schott Foundation for Public Education (2010) have reported that to be African American and male in an American school places an individual at risk for a variety of negative consequences: school failure, special education assignment, suspensions, expulsions, and violence. Yet all of the participants were elated to talk about the pride they felt when they accomplished something that made their mothers proud. They indicated that seeing their mother and siblings struggle became a driving force for them to succeed despite the many challenges of their circumstances.
All the participants referred to either their mother or maternal figure, such as a grandmother or aunt as helping to guide them through their educational journey. In the absence of the father, the participants looked to their mothers for guidance, support and encouragement to help them achieve academic success. For example, Mr. Alpha remembered how hard his mother tried to be mother, grandmother, and father, while caring for herself, even with the diagnosis of cancer, and attempting to work a full time job all at the same time.
Helpful School Personnel
Research suggests one of the reasons that African American male students tend not to be successful in high school is the lack of support they receive from the school system (Croninger & Lee, 2001). This was often the case for these participants because they had no one to come to the school and speak on their behalf when something went wrong in the school. They had to learn how to speak up for themselves so that others might understand their situations and that they were “not just being disrespectful” but that they needed to be assisted in spite of the fact that they had no parental support. Mr. Valedictorian remembered a time when he went to a school administrator to talk about a situation that he was having with one of his teachers but he also had a viable solution that he wanted to make sure was sufficient for the problem that he was having. He noted that the administrator was very proud of him as the solution that he had was a good one and appreciated that he sought guidance from a school administrator whom he trusted.
Several of the participants remembered a certain person in the school who would help them with situations when they needed help. They found teachers or administrators who showed care and concern for them and would help to provide them with the necessary tools and supplies that helped them in the educational career. Mr. Alpha gave the example of going to school the first day of his senior year without any school supplies and he did not know anyone at school to whom he could go for assistance. He talked to one teacher who did not know what to do so she called in the administrator whom he trusted. This administrator got him all the school supplies that he needed. He developed a deep connection with this administrator. One of the participants began calling this administrator “Momma.” This connection helped the students to foster a caring and open dialogue when they felt secure enough to talk with this faculty member and others. Thus, in this way, some educators became a role model and a strong influence in the students’ lives. Mr. Valedictorian noted that “friends and teachers all helped me to stay grounded, realizing that I had potential. They kind of just kept telling me to stick with it, you know what I mean, for me to never give up.”
Only one participant felt there was little support available to him in the school system. However, he admitted that this might have been because he was not the type of person to tell people what was going on with him. He had a tendency to keep things to himself and work them out one-by-one. He stated, “Yes, it gets tough at times, but it keeps people from saying crazy and inappropriate things to you, thinking that they are helping you out.” However, as he entered high school, he started to self-select teacher mentors, both male and female, who mentored and supported him, “helping to shape my thinking.”
Inner Motivation to Succeed
All the participants admitted they had started out down “the wrong road.” They discussed following older siblings, family members, or just falling in with the wrong crowd in the community and school. However, they all wanted to just be “normal students,” as one said, have fun and do the things that other students were able to do who maybe did not have the monumental responsibilities that they had.
Then something changed in their lives and they realized that they needed to have a different mindset in order to do the things that they needed to do and move ahead not just for themselves but for their immediate families also. These students realized that they had to grow up and act years ahead of their age. They knew that they had to have high self-esteem in order to overcome the “bad hand that they had been dealt in life.” They had to overcome the absent father, the negative effects of community where they lived, and also the inadequate school environment that they had to endure day after day. For example, Mr. Valedictorian emphasized:
Sometimes you just have to ask a lot of questions lean on people and pray they will help you, lead you in the right direction of life. If you present yourself as a genuine learner, someone who is willing to listen, take direction, and not be a hot head, people will be willing to help you succeed. The ones that really have the best interests at heart for you they seem to somehow to always find a way to be with you, be around you, you know what I’m saying. Just to really tell you that, “Oh, you can do this,” you know what I’m saying?
All six participants described an inner hunger to do more, to have more, and to be better for themselves and their siblings. These participants were raised mostly by their mothers and grandmothers and they all watched as these ladies put in countless hours working sometimes more than one job at a time to try and support their families. All these students wanted to do better than others in their family so that they would be able to provide a better life for their mothers and siblings. They all came to the realization that they needed education to better themselves. As Mr. Valedictorian said, “. . . to be successful as a student your work ethic and your willpower have to be immeasurable.”
Looking at their environment and the situations they were in helped them to strive to do better. They were able to overcome their negative home life situations and instead turned them into positive motivators. They emphasized how they tried to be a role model for their siblings and wanted to be able to contribute to the family because they were “tired of seeing their mothers struggle and suffer for the family.”
Because of the absence of the parent-teacher relationship in school, the students’ inner motivation to succeed caused them to seek help for themselves in the schools by identifying mentors and role models. This was a relationship dynamic that for some of the participants did not come until after the student had been in trouble and someone at school took an interest in them to make certain that the student did not go down the wrong path again. For example, Mr. Motorcycle shared about his experiences playing basketball and not making varsity. He did not get along with his coach because, “I always had an attitude somehow, whatever it was I did.” He added:
The challenge for me was always striving to do better, to be better. I mean, you can make a difference. You know, you have to always compete. I started high school, kind of lazy and lacking energy. And it got into my head, well, it just ended like it was supposed to be. But as I progressed in high school through the years, you know, it got better for me. My grades went up and I guess I matured a lot more. And I started assessing the detail—what I wanted to be—how I wanted to stand out. I wanted to be the smartest kid in America and so, I told myself, no matter what, I’ll always try to take it to the next level, never be satisfied. I mean, you know the person in the gym or the person on the field is always going to be the better athlete. The person that studies more is going to know the most, you know. So from there, I grew and I kept getting better. Successful students always want to be better than what they are at that particular time. They just want to be the best. I mean who wants to be in second place?
Bush (1999) noted the difficulty of the African American male coming to manhood but emphasized these experiences could and should stimulate independent and creative thinking that would help them to have an inherent desire to excel and rise about negative influences. Despite their difficulties, these six young men developed a resilience and personal motivation that led to making positive choices based on this inner desire to succeed.
Conclusions
Overall, findings from this study lead to the conclusion that young African American males may overcome challenging issues of their life circumstances with personal resilience and become socially competent, problem solvers able to make decisions on their own. Barr and Parrett (2007) also found that resilient students, such as these exhibited social competence, problem-solving skills, and autonomy. Indeed, this study emphasizes and affirms the power of cultural capital when students are able to draw from relationships with others, especially certain family members and school personnel (Coleman, 1988). Coleman (1988) emphasized that social capital is facilitated through relationships that suggest the importance of trust. These young men, despite challenging life experiences and circumstances, were able to build successful academic careers in high school because of trust with their mothers, grandmothers, and some educators. These trusting relationships enabled them to develop an inner motivation to succeed. Social capital is also facilitated when individuals are able to seek out information they need, which these young men were able to do. In fact, they assertively sought teachers and mentors who could help them be successful at school.
This study offers hope to African American males and their supporters because it provides evidence that even in the absence of a stable family life and a community where negative influences abound, these young men can still respond to negative situations and actually use them as stepping stones for success. As with these participants, African American males with the support of some family and educators can choose to overcome their community and environmental situations with determination and willingness to work hard. When African American males are young and living in a poverty environment with crime and drugs, they must build on their inner qualities and forge supportive relationships with others. Having an absent father in the home was initially “a bitter pill to swallow,” but these young men eventually got past that hurdle and realized that they could still become “the man” that they wanted to become.
Each of the participants confirmed that they leaned on their faith when times were hard, prayed for help, and sought guidance from God. In some degree, the participants’ response to helping their mothers by helping in the home contributed to an important acknowledgement of self-worth, which strengthened their resolve to be successful.
A. Tatum (2005) wrote, “Black males respond to schooling based on both their perception of the treatment they receive in school and their perceptions of what schooling will do for them in the future” (p. 73). These participants found someone in the school whom they could trust and build a rapport. They looked to these individuals for moral support, help with maneuvering the obstacles in the school, and as someone to talk to when times got tough. Thus one can conclude the importance of the presence of supportive individuals in their lives. Other family members may indeed fill the absent father role (Kornhaber, 2005). Traditional families are often not the norm, but mentors, educators in the schools, community organizations and places of worship, and family provide a needed vehicle to affect men as sources of encouragement (Gardner & Miranda, 2001).
Kunjufu (2004) stressed that if African American males are going to be successful, they must rise above the status quo and meet the everyday barriers of White privilege and the myriad of negative stereotypes voiced by society. They must strive to succeed at a high level of expectation. These six participants exhibited a personal understanding of their inner strength and determination. They realized that there was something different about themselves from which they could draw to overcome the circumstances of their lives and they possessed a willingness to succeed at whatever the cost. Many African Americans have realized that through the years, their spiritual connection with a higher power was a source of strength from which to draw. Emanuel (2009) stated that a lack of religious training in African American males lives could leave significant gaps in the overall character development and successful achievement. She studied successful African American males and also found that spirituality in their lives was a contributing factor to their success. The findings in this study also suggest that the development of their moral compass contributed to the foundation and the motivation for them to succeed.
Implications for Practice and Research
It is imperative that educators provide an avenue to assist African American males to be successful. The traditional notion of students coming to school from a home environment where they are ready to learn is not always the norm for all young people. Hawley and Nieto (2010) suggested that focusing on students’ race or ethnicity affects how one should teach. They argued that an acknowledgement that racial and ethnic discrimination has been, and continues to be, has a significant influence on what and how students learn. In communities today where race and ethnicity play a significant part in everyone’s life, there needs to be a stance of equity and fairness for all. They argued if educators indicate that they are color-blind, they are being ignorant with regard to the differences that their students bring into the classroom; this approach can be a hindrance for the teacher and create a hostile environment for students of color.
Teachers often think that they can build a student’s self-esteem by reducing the rigor in the classroom. This harmful belief leads to lowered expectations and, inevitably, lower academic outcomes (Teach for America, 2010). Compelling evidence shows that when teachers hold high expectations for students who have been marginalized by their schooling experiences, student learning is enhanced, as long as high expectations are linked to greater resources and support (Ferguson, 2004).
Instead, educators must become culturally proficient. Singleton and Linton (2006) argued that too often educators “do not know what they do not know” (p. 55). Thus, educators must develop a racial consciousness and engage in courageous conversations about race, which will lead to better understandings. Harris and Jenkins (2013) argued that when educators develop a “cultural conscience,” they have a full appreciation of diversity and acknowledge the strength it contributes to a positive campus climate (p. 63). Workshops emphasizing culturally proficient teaching must be required for teachers and for administrators. It is the job of educators to assertively help young people develop cultural capital; thus, they must learn all that they can to work with diverse students and assist them in becoming successful. Parenting classes should be provided for parents. Community programs should be developed in conjunction with the school to support these young men. Schools and church organizations should work together to develop mentoring programs and tutorial programs to support these young men.
Further research will be required in order for educators, community members, and families alike to understand the plight of these students. Many researchers have reported the negative aspects of the African American male, addressing the challenges they must confront, and the issues leading up to their lack of success in school, which include their community, their home lives, and the absence of parents in the home (Gibbs, 1988, 2010; Jones et al., 2006). These six African American male students experienced the challenges and barriers, which the research provides as reasons for failure, yet they rose above them to be successful. Thus, more studies are needed on students who succeed. What personal attributes do these students have that can be identified? What elements in their experiences, such as relationships with others, might have increased their resilience and persistence toward succeeding? Following African American students as they attend college in a longitudinal study will lend itself to a more in-depth understanding of this phenomenon. Investigating African American students from both suburban and rural school districts to understand their needs will result in a better understanding of what supports are most effective. Additional studies of African American males first time in college as students should be done regarding persistence and retention.
Concluding Remarks
This phenomenological narrative study investigated the lived experiences of six African American male students in the fourth largest U.S. city and the seventh largest school district in the United States. Findings from this study suggest that students when given the right motivation, encouragement and support can be successful. Research shows that the presence of an extended family member, such as grandmother, brothers, sisters, uncles, aunts, or cousins can provide necessary tools for success (Clark, 1983; Fashola, 2005). Each of the participants had at least one family member whom they admired and wanted to make proud. This person was a driving force in the participants’ lives and someone to whom they could go for guidance and understanding. Within this family dynamic, all the participants noted the desire to help siblings and their faith was a positive factor in their lives, something from which they drew strength during difficulty. Supportive educators also provided needed role models. The participants all emphasized that they took both the positive and the negative circumstances in their lives and chose to use all those influences as stepping stones to help shape who they are today and who they hope to become in the future.
One of the participants in this study, Mr. Technology, described his school success in this way:
My grandmother, she didn’t want to tell me about my mother’s death and my father in prison since I was born; but eventually, you always find out. Others who go through the same situation would use that as an excuse, I know that, but I didn’t really see it as an excuse. I just saw it as a way to move forward and realize that I wanted better for myself. I’m still living. I might as well make the best out of it.
These six African American male students chose to rise above the negative influences existent in their lives through family, peers, school, and their community. They made conscious, intentional choices to overcome these barriers. Thus, cultural capital in the form of a positive family member, a trusted individual in the school, and a spiritual foundation are often precursors to developing a strong moral compass, and a personal inner motivation to want to do better. These factors all need to be considered when educators try to determine what supports should be implemented to help African American male students succeed.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.