Influence of a School District’s Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) Program on Self-Efficacy and Other Indicators of Student Achievement

Abstract

This article examines a school district’s Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) program using perceived self-efficacy in academic achievement and self-regulated learning, GPA and attendance as indicators of program effectiveness. Results suggest that AVID participation was positively and significantly correlated with attendance in the full sample and among Latino/students, and was a strong predictor of self-efficacy and GPA among African Americans. Findings suggest that AVID may be useful to educational leaders in thier efforts to reduce achievement gaps among ethnic minorities.

Keywords

program evaluation Advancement via Individual Determination Latino/a African American self-efficacy student achievement

Despite monumental efforts over the past half century, the United States still struggles to close persistent achievement gaps between African American and Latino/a students and their White and Asian peers (National Center of Education Statistics, 2012). The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001, an updated version of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965, and the Obama Administration’s Race to the Top (RTTT) competitive grant initiative have focused the attention of school districts across the nation on the academic achievement of historically disadvantaged ethnic minorities. States have been required to show improvement of all student groups by disaggregating academic performance data by ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and other characteristics. Societal issues such as crime and poverty contribute to the poor academic achievement of these students (Lacour & Tissington, 2011). These issues are exacerbated by psychosocial issues at school, such as stereotype threat, tracking, and low teacher expectations (Skrla, McKenzie, & Scheurich, 2009). Among the ethnic immigrant population, especially those of Mexican American descent, prejudice and discrimination erode student academic performance, as they undergo the acculturative process of assimilating and integrating into a new cultural community (Lopez & Stanton-Salazar, 2001). Ethnic minorities in environments plagued with these challenges are often left without role models, mentors, and self-confidence, all of which adversely affect motivation for academic achievement (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2009).

A major concept of motivation linked to student achievement is self-efficacy. Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as “beliefs in one’s own capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to produce given attainments” (p. 3). He posited that “people’s self-efficacy beliefs determine their level of motivation, as reflected in how much effort they will exert in an endeavor and how long they will persevere in the face of obstacles” (Bandura, 1989, p. 1176). Researchers have found strong links between academic achievement and student self-efficacy, their abilities to perform academically and use self-regulatory strategies required for academic success (Multon, Brown, & Lent, 1991; Pajares & Miller, 1994; Schunk & Pajares, 2009; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992).

One program used by school districts across the country to improve student self-efficacy, self-regulation, and achievement is the Advancement via Individual Determination (AVID) program. AVID is a detracking program which places students in a rigorous course of study which meets college entrance requirements and provides support in both cognitive and affective domains. Its mission statement emphasizes reducing the achievement gap by preparing students for college readiness, focusing on strategies related to writing, inquiry, collaboration, organization, and reading (WICOR), and by providing teacher advocacy and sponsorship. Its selection criteria traditionally focus on students in the “academic middle” who are members of a population historically underserved at 4-year colleges (AVID, 2015). The AVID program was used as a tool to reduce the achievement gap in the organizational context for this study, a large school district (referred to as “the district”) of approximately 50,000 students in a Florida coastal community. The district believed that AVID would allow them to “increase the performance levels of under-performing subgroups, thus closing the gaps for both Hispanics and African- American subgroups, as compared to the White population by 2015” (District RTTT Plan, 2010, p. 19). This study evaluated the effectiveness of this effort using program evaluation as a methodology.

Program Evaluation

Program evaluation serves as a critical tool for educational decision makers for determining a program’s value and was used to provide district leaders with information and recommendations regarding whether to sustain, discontinue, or modify the AVID program. A commonly used approach to program evaluation in education is the CIPP model, as it examines a program’s context, inputs, processes, and products, answering the questions: “What should we do? How should we do it? Are we doing it correctly? Did it work?” (Stufflebeam, 1971, p. 6). This study focused only on the product component of the CIPP model. Critical to performing a CIPP-type evaluation is defining a program theory, or a set of statements that explain why, how, and under what conditions the effects of a program occur. According to the program theory used in this evaluation, AVID, with its teacher advocacy and WICOR strategies, should improve motivation, as determined by participants’ perceived self-efficacy and student achievement.

Although the long-term goal of the district was to reduce the achievement gap, this evaluation focused on the short-term impact or products of the AVID program. Thus, the products of student motivation (as determined by self-efficacy), grade point average (GPA) and attendance served as critical indicators of progress in obtaining program objectives by addressing the following questions: To what extent does time in the AVID program predict students’ (including African American and Latino/a student populations) motivation as indicated by their perception of self-efficacy for academic achievement, their perception of self-efficacy for self-regulated learning, as well as their GPAs and school attendance? The links between self-efficacy and student achievement, and AVID’s claim to improve self-efficacy and student achievement, informed the use of these variables as indicators of program effectiveness.

Influence of AVID and Its Strategies on Self-Efficacy

Bandura (1977) argued that a student’s self-efficacy comes from four sources: mastery experiences, social modeling, social persuasion, and psychological responses. Mastery experience affords students the opportunity to assess self-efficacy based on their performance at the target task and is the source that has been found to be the greatest predictor of self-efficacy (Lent, Lopez, & Bieschke, 1991). Students are also motivated when they observe teachers and peers perform the target task successfully and may be dissuaded when they observe unsuccessful performances. Social persuasion, or the verbal feedback students receive about their performance, in conjunction with mastery and vicarious experiences, also predict academic and self-regulatory self-efficacy (Usher & Pajares, 2006).

On the AVID website (2015) there are numerous references to the program’s influence on academic and self-regulatory self-efficacy in the WICOR strategies, which address three of four discussed sources. Teacher advocacy, tutors, field trips to colleges, and the WICOR curriculum are designed to provide mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, and social persuasion so that students experience success in a college preparatory curriculum. Using college tutors from similar circumstances provides social modeling, and college tours afford AVID students the ability to vicariously experience successful students in college life. The program emphasizes social persuasion by training AVID coordinators and teachers to instill confidence in AVID students through verbal encouragement (Guthrie & Guthrie, 2002). As a result, AVID students “demonstrate improved academic behaviors, competencies, and a sense of self-efficacy reinforced by peer support and mentoring” (AVID website, 2015, “AVID Higher Education Initiative Student Success,” para.1).

Despite the above assertion, research pertaining to the relationship between the AVID program and student self-efficacy is scant. Using comparable dependent variables in a program evaluation, Black, Little, McCoach, Purcell, and Siegle (2008), found that AVID had a positive impact on student self-concept in English and language arts. One aspect of self-concept is self-confidence, a motivational construct akin to self-efficacy. In addition, a Minneapolis School District (2010) performed a longitudinal study of the effectiveness of GEAR UP, a program with affective and cognitive strategies comparable to AVID, found that the program significantly affected their students’ self-efficacy for college. Moreover, Parker, Eliot, and Tart (2013) conducted a qualitative study of the influence of the AVID program on African American men in a southeastern section of the United States. One of the key findings, based on themes derived from interviews, indicated that their success academically was attributed to the family-like relationships formed in the AVID program. Likewise, Watt, Johnston, Huerta, Mendiola, and Alkan (2008) concluded that AVID’s teacher-student relationships and family-like environment improved self-esteem and determination.

Perceived Self-Efficacy Among African American and Latino/a Students

Existing research suggests that academic self-efficacy is a predictor of school success for both African American and Latino/students (Flores, Ojeda, Huang, Gee, & Lee, 2006; Thomas et al., 2009) and those psychosocial and sociocultural variables play a major role in the development of their self-efficacy. Among African American students, two themes pervade extant literature pertaining to the development of self-efficacy in an academic context: a sense of belongingness and a strong value of one’s ethnic identity. In an examination of the role of protective factors supporting academic achievement of African American children living in poverty, researchers have found significant correlations between feelings of school belonging and teacher support with academic self-efficacy (Gutman & Midgley, 2000). Having the requisite resources, experiences, and relationships for academic success or cultural capital has a significant impact on the sense of belongingness at school (Tramonte & Willms, 2010).

Like a sense of belongingness, the ability to understand and value one’s ethnicity has a significant impact on African American academic motivation. Ethnic identity is “part of an individual’s self-concept which derives from knowledge of membership of a social group together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership” (Tajfel, 1981, p. 255). With a strong appreciation of ethnic identity, one is less likely to be affected by negative perceptions based on stereotypes (Phinney, 1989) and have improved self-efficacy and academic achievement (O’Brien, Martinez-Pons, & Kopala, 1999). The source of this improved self-efficacy among African Americans is derived primarily from both mastery experiences and social persuasion (Usher & Pajares, 2006).

Latino/a student self-efficacy has also been found to be influenced by psychosocial and sociocultural variables. Latino/a students participating in academic programs focused on fostering a sense of belonging have greater self-efficacy and student achievement (Kettler, Shiu, & Johnsen, 2006). However, among Latino/a students, especially those of Mexican American heritage, acculturation, or the extent to which one assimilates with the dominant culture, has an impact on student achievement and motivation. Ethnic identity focuses on an affinity for one’s cultural group and has been found to be linked to greater self-efficacy among Latino/a students (Updegraff, Crouter, Umaña-Taylor, & Cansler, 2007), whereas acculturation focuses on cultural orientations or behaviors. Although there are contradictory findings in the research literature, recent research has shown that Latino/a immigrants with an Anglo-oriented acculturation set higher educational goals and have greater self-efficacy for academic and career decision making (Flores et al., 2006). Moreover, students with a strong sense of their own culture and the Anglo culture (biculturalism) have greater self-efficacy and improved student achievement as well (Aguayo, Herman, Ojeda, & Flores, 2011; Buriel, Perez, DeMent, Chavez, & Moran, 1998).

The self-efficacy, student achievement, and educational aspirations of Latino/a students are also influenced by whether they are first-, second-, or later generation immigrants. The literature, however, is mixed with regard to the impact of generational status. Kim and Chao (2009) found that first- and second-generation immigrants were more motivated to perform academically than following generations, while other research indicated that first generations had lower self-efficacy and academic achievement (Aguayo et al., 2011). Last, unlike African American students, whose self-efficacy is primarily influenced by mastery and social persuasion, research suggests that among Mexican students in particular, vicarious experiences are more predictive of self-efficacy (Stevens, Olivárez, & Hamman, 2006).

Influence of AVID on GPA and Attendance

The secondary short-term outcomes in this evaluation were the dependent variables of GPA and attendance. According to the program theory used in this evaluation, AVID’s WICOR strategies and teacher advocacy should result in improved GPA’s and attendance. Studies have shown that high school freshman unweighted GPAs predict high school graduation and nongraduation rates 80% of the time (Allensworth & Easton, 2007). Extant research also suggests that attendance has a significantly positive impact on student achievement and behaviors associated with high school success (Roby, 2004). The program philosophy that under girds AVID contends that the academic and social support the program provides improves student GPAs and attendance (AVID, 2015). The few studies pertaining to AVID and student achievement as measured by GPA are mixed, however (Multon et al., 1991). Black et al. (2008) found that AVID had a significant impact on middle school students’ grades in language arts and English. However, studies by Guthrie and Guthrie (2000) in California and Watt, Huerta, and Lozano (2007) in the Rio Grande Valley in Texas found mixed and statistically insignificant results. With respect to attendance, large-scale studies of middle and high school students across the state of Texas have shown that AVID students had higher rates of attendance than non-AVID students, especially among African American and Latino/a students (Watt, Powell, & Mendiola, 2004; Watt, Yanez, & Cossio, 2002).

Method

This study utilized a quasi-experimental approach to determine the effect of the AVID program on the selected dependent variables overtime. Students were not randomly selected from district AVID programs, as we wanted to ensure that the participants were from schools implementing AVID processes with greater fidelity. Thus, it was critical to coordinate with AVID coordinators and teachers. Based on data collected from a survey to measure perceived self-efficacy and district records, hierarchical multiple regression was used to determine the effects of AVID on its students.

The study attempts to answers the program evaluation questions by examining whether time-in-AVID significantly predicts variance in self-efficacy, attendance, and GPA. The amount of student exposure to the AVID “treatment” ranges from those with no experience to those with at least 5 years of experience in AVID. Faul, Erdfelder, Lang, and Buchner (2007) argued that in order have a 95% chance of finding a “moderate” increase in explained variance, thus to be statistically significant at the .05 level, a sample of at least N = 89 would be required. Sample data from students in each time-in-AVID category (0, 1, 2, 3, years, etc.) were proportional to the numbers of students in the school district at each of those levels.

Participants

The district is located in an area which attracts workers primarily from Mexico to harvest and process the citrus fruit grown there, giving local schools a substantial population of historically lower performing students and posing a significant challenge to reducing the achievement gap. This politically conservative, coastal community (Florida Department of State, 2014) is 73% White, 15% Latino/a and 9% African American (U.S. Census Bureau, 2014). The district is composed of 34 elementary, 10 middle and 6 traditional high schools, and is 49% White, 32%, Latino/a and 14% African American. In its effort to reduce the achievement gap, the AVID program was implemented at all of its 11 middle schools and 6 traditional high schools.

Data were obtained for 573 students representing eight AVID-certified middle and high schools to ensure exposure to AVID strategies with a high level of fidelity. Although there are various levels of certification, AVID-certified schools are those showing the requisite capacity, commitment, and financial resources to faithfully implement AVID processes. The participants included 434 AVID students with varying years of participation and 139 non-AVID students who met AVID eligibility criteria. The AVID students were recruited from among the approximately 1,000 students participating in the AVID program throughout the district schools. A substantial number of students who begin AVID in Grade 7 remain in the program through Grade 12. Students with no AVID experience were selected from middle and high school advanced language arts and English classes. English teachers with no AVID experience worked in consultation with AVID coordinators to ensure all of these students met AVID selection criteria.

The ages of participants ranged from 11 to 19 years, with a mean of 14.47 years (SD = 1.69). There were 338 females (59.0%) and 189 males (33.0%), with no gender data available for 46 students (8.0%). The racial distribution of students were as follows: White, n = 259 (45.2%); African American, n = 93 (16.2%); Latino/a, n = 148 (25.8%); Asian, n = 10 (1.7%); Native American, n = 1 (0.2%); and multiracial, n = 16 (2.8%). Students were distributed across grade levels as follows: Grade 6, n = 10 (1.7%); Grade 7, n = 106 (18.5%); Grade 8, n = 95 (16.6%); Grade 9, n = 120 (20.9%); Grade 10, n = 113 (19.7%); Grade 11, n = 97 (16.9%); and Grade 12, n = 32 (5.6%). GPAs ranged from 0.71 to 4.0, with a mean of 3.20 (SD = 0.65). Attendance ranged from 73% to 100%, with a mean of 94.57% (SD = 4.92%).

Years of exposure to AVID ranged from 0 to 5, with a mean of 1.01 (SD = 1.20) as follows: 0 years, n = 139; 0.33 years, n = 162; 1 year, n = 98; 2 years, n = 73; 3 years, n = 53; 4 or more years, n = 28. Demographic information is displayed in Table 1.

Table 1.

Demographics.

Demographic group	N	%
Gender
Female	338	59
Male	189	33
Race
White	259	45.2
African American	93	16.2
Latino/a	148	25.8
Asian	10	1.7
Native American	1	0.2
Multiracial	16	2,8
Grade
6	10	1.7
7	106	18.5
8	95	16.6
9	120	20.9
10	113	19.7
11	97	16.9
12	32	5.6
Years in AVID
0	139	30.5
1	162	35.6
2	73	16
3	53	11.6
4 or more	28	6.1

Note. AVID = Advancement via Individual Determination.

Data Sources

The data sources for this study included a self-efficacy survey with two components, as well as GPA, attendance, and demographic data obtained from district records.

Self-Efficacy

The self-efficacy instrument used in this study is from Bandura’s (1990) Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self-efficacy which is composed of nine subscales for perceived self-efficacy for domains such as enlisting social resources, enlisting parental and community support, self-assertive efficacy, and social self-efficacy. This study used the Zimmerman et al. (1992) two-domain version of Bandura’s nine-domain scale as illustrated in Table 2. Students were asked to rate their confidence in performing various academic and self-regulatory tasks based on a 7-point scale, with anchors at 1 = not well at all, 3 = not Well, 5 = pretty well, and 7 = very well. The scale for general academic achievement focuses on determining student-perceived efficacy in course work areas ranging from biology to general mathematics. These subjects are closely related to those subjects that AVID students likely experience in a college preparatory curriculum within the district. The scale for self-regulatory self-efficacy focused on student confidence in performing self-regulatory tasks such as note taking, planning, and organization.

Table 2.

Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations.

	N	Grade	Age	Years in AVID	SE for academic achievement	SE for self-regulation	GPA	Attendance
All students
Grade	573		.95**	.42**	.01	−.03	−.18**	−.03
Age				.41**	.001	−.04	−.22	.52
Years in AVID					.001	−.04	.03	.13**
SE for academic achievement						.47**	.10*	.07
SE for self-regulation							.19**	.12**
GPA								.32**
Attendance
M		9.12	14.47	1.01	5.20	5.09	3.20	94.57
SD		1.69	1.69	1.20	0.64	0.873	0.66	4.92
African American students
Grade	93		.95**	.45**	−.07	−.01	−.05	−.10
Age				.45**	−.05	−.01	−.07	−.11
Years in AVID					.30**	.27**	.28**	.07
SE for academic achievement						.63**	.31**	.22*
SE for self-regulation							.20	.13
GPA								.44**
Attendance
M		9.31	14.46	1.23	5.12	5.17	3.20	96.25
SD		1.65	1.79	1.33	0.702	0.922	0.70	4.35
Latino/a students
Grade	147		.94**	.43**	−.02	−.10	−.17*	−.01
Age				.41**	−.02	−.10	−.22**	−.03
Years in AVID					.01	.003	−.02	.17*
SE for academic achievement						.55**	.13	.11
SE for self-regulation							.26**	.18*
GPA								.32**
Attendance
M		9.02	14.78	1.23	5.12	5.17	3.20	96.25
SD		1.65	1.86	1.33	0.70	0.92	0.70	4.34

Note. SE = self-efficacy; AVID = Advancement via Individual Determination; GPA = grade point average.

p < .05. **p < .01.

Bandura’s research validating the 57-item multidimensional scale resulted in a Cronbach’s alpha reliability of .72 for the academic achievement subscale and .86 for the self-regulatory self-efficacy subscale. In another study, Miller, Coombs, and Fuqua (1999) confirmed all nine dimensions and found that Cronbach’s alpha reliabilities for academic and self-regulatory self-efficacy were .74 and .87, respectively. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha for the scale for academic self-efficacy scale was α = .65 and for the self-regulatory self-efficacy scales was α = .83.

Achievement Data

GPA and attendance alike have been used by AVID researchers to market program success (AVID, 2015) and have been shown to predict student achievement (Allensworth & Easton, 2007; DeBerard, Spielmans, & Julka, 2012; Gottfried, 2010). These data were obtained from the District Office of Information Technology (IT).

Data Collection

The modified Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self-efficacy was given to students from the selected middle and high school AVID programs and advanced English classes during the Fall 2014 semester. All students given the survey provided parental consent to participate. In compliance with district policy, students taking the survey were only asked to report student ID numbers, grade, age, and number of years in the AVID program on the survey form. Ethnicity, race, and sex of the students surveyed were obtained from the district IT department, as each student’s ID number was matched with these data. Likewise, attendance and GPA from the Spring 2014 semester were obtained from district IT and matched with student ID numbers. By using attendance and GPA data from the Spring 2014 semester, behavior of new students and of those with no AVID exposure was captured. Students who were veterans of the AVID program reflected the varying amounts of program exposure they had experienced.

Data Analysis

We used hierarchical regression analyses to examine the correlations between the number of years in the AVID program and each of the four outcome measures, controlling statistically for age and grade to account for changes that may result from simple maturation. The correlation between exposure to AVID and the outcome measures, if significant, would support the program theory which hypothesizes that the more exposure a student has to the AVID program, the greater the motivation (as determined by perceived self-efficacy for academic achievement and self-regulation), attendances rates, and GPA, independent of any effects that age and grade might exert on these outcome measures. Missing data were deleted on a list-wise basis.

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Correlations

Descriptive Statistics

An examination of the descriptive statistics found that the mean grade level was Grade 9 for the sample as a whole, as well as for the African American and Latino/subgroups. The average age was 14.5 years for the full sample and the African American students, while it was nearly 15 years for the Latino/a participants. The average length of time in the AVID program was slightly greater than 1 year, with a standard deviation of a year. The mean scores for self-efficacy for academic achievement and for self-efficacy for self-regulation was 5 (pretty well) on a 7-point scale among the full sample as well as the two subsamples, with a standard deviation of less than a point. This lack of variability may have affected the results of the analyses. The mean GPA for the students in this study was 3.2 (SD = 0.66, 0.70, 0.70 for the full sample and two subgroups), and mean attendance was 95% for the full sample and 96% for both the African American and Latino/a samples. See Table 2.

Bivariate Correlations

As expected, grade and age were strongly correlated (r ranged from .94 to .95), and moderately correlated with years in AVID (r ranged from .41 to .45). Although the means for self-efficacy for academic achievement and self-efficacy for self-regulation were very similar to one another, the correlation between the two scales was moderate and varied among the three analyses. See Table 2.

For the full sample, the correlation was r = .47 (p < .01), while for African American students r = .63 (p < .01) and for Latino/a students r = .55 (p < .01).

GPA was related to self-efficacy for academic achievement for the full sample (r = .10, p < .05) and for African American students (r = .31, p < .05), but not for Latino/a students.

GPA was related to self-efficacy for self-regulation for the full sample (r = .19, p < .01) and for Latino/a students (r = .26, p < .01), but not for African American students.

Attendance was related to self-efficacy for academic achievement for African American students (r = .17, p < .05), but not for the full sample or Latino/a students.

Attendance was related to self-efficacy for self-regulation for the full sample (r = .32, p < .05) and for Latino/a students (r = .26, p < .01), but not for African American students.

AVID Program Influence on Self-Efficacy for Academic Achievement

A hierarchical multiple regression analysis was used to explore the relationship of the independent variables on self-efficacy for academic achievement. The covariates entered in the first step (Model 1) were age and grade level. Years-in-AVID was entered in the second step (Model 2). The covariates (age and grade level) were not significantly associated with self-efficacy for academic achievement. Among the full sample of students (N = 570), the length of exposure to AVID explained 1.2% of the variance (ΔR² = .01, p < .01) and was positively associated with self-efficacy for academic achievement (β = .12, t = 2.64, p < .001). For African American students (n = 93), years-in-AVID showed a positive association with self-efficacy for academic achievement (ΔR² = .13, p < .001), explaining 13.3% additional variance beyond the covariates of age and grade (β = .41, t = 3.70, p < .001). In the analysis of Latino/a students (n = 147), the variance associated with age and grade were not statistically significant, nor was the length of exposure to AVID.

AVID Program Influence on Self-Efficacy for Self-Regulated Learning

The second set of analyses sought to determine the impact of the AVID program on student self-efficacy for self-regulated learning. Among the full sample of students (N = 570), the impact of the covariates was not statistically significant. The length of exposure to AVID explained an additional 3% of the variance (ΔR² = .03, p < .001), and was positively correlated with self-efficacy for self-regulated learning (β = .13, t = 4.11, p < .001). In the analysis of the African American students, the influence of age and grade were not statistically significant. Years-in-AVID, however, explained an additional 9.7% of the variance (ΔR² = .10, p < .001), and showed a positive association with self-efficacy for self-regulated learning (β = .35, t = 3.09, p < .01). The variance associated with the covariates in the analysis of Latino/a was not statistically significant, nor was the length of AVID exposure.

AVID Program Influence on GPA

For the third set of hierarchical multiple regression analyses, the Spring 2014 GPA served as the dependent variable. Again, age and grade level served as covariates, and the length of exposure to AVID was the independent variable. The influence of the covariates of grade and age were not significantly related to GPA for the full sample nor for the African American students. For Latino/a students (N = 143), however, age and grade level explained 6.1% of the variance in GPA (ΔR² = .061, p < .05), and the covariate age showed a significant negative association with GPA (β = −.495, t = −2.182, p < .05). In the full sample (N = 501), the length of exposure to AVID explained an additional 1.6% of the variance in GPA (ΔR² = .016, p < .001), and years-in-AVID showed a modest, but significant, positive association with GPA (β = .138, t = 2.872, p < .01). In the analysis of African American students (n = 92), exposure to AVID explained 11.6% of the variance in GPA (ΔR² = .116, p < .001), with a positive association (β = .381, t = 3.378, p < .001). In the analysis of Latino/a students (N = 143), exposure to AVID was not a statistically significant predictor of GPA.

AVID Program Influence on School Attendance

In the final set of multiple hierarchical regression analyses, the dependent variable was students’ Spring 2014 attendance as defined by percentage of days present. The variance associated with the age and grade on attendance was not statistically significant for the full sample nor for the African American and Latino/a students. In the full sample (N = 510), the length of exposure to AVID explained 2.4% of the variance (ΔR² = .024, p < .001), showing a modest but statistically significant association with attendance (β = .172, t = 3.551, p < .001). With the African American group (n = 91), the length of exposure to AVID was not a statistically significant predictor of attendance. For the Latino/a subgroup analysis (n = 145), exposure to AVID explained 3.5% of the variance in attendance (ΔR² = .035, p < .05) and showed a small but statistically significant association with attendance (β = .206, t = 2.268, p < .05).

Discussion of Findings

Influence of AVID on Self-Efficacy

This program evaluation sought to determine the extent to which time in the AVID program influenced student motivation as indicated by their self-efficacy for academic achievement, self-efficacy for self-regulatory learning, and the relation of these motivational factors to student achievement. Overall, the length of exposure to AVID showed a small but positive correlation to self-efficacy for academic achievement. These results were consistent with the Black et al. (2008) study, which found that AVID had a positive impact on student self-concept in English and language arts. The length of time in AVID also had a small but statistically significant impact on self-efficacy for self-regulation. This is consistent with AVID’s emphasis on developing skills to effectively manage time, plan for class assignments, organize ideas and information for major projects, use calendars and binders, and take notes using the Cornell system (AVID, 2015). Students with developed self-regulation learn actively in terms of metacognition, behavior, and motivation (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2007). This evaluation study did not assess the fidelity of AVID strategy implementation; thus, an evaluation of AVID process implementation would illuminate any implementation deficiencies affecting the impact of AVID’s influence.

One of the most significant findings in this study was the influence of the AVID program on African American students, as the length of exposure to AVID was positively correlated with both academic self-efficacy and self-regulatory self-efficacy. One possible explanation for the unique influence of AVID on African American students could be the linking of self-efficacy to sense of belongingness (Gutman & Midgley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2009). The AVID program claims to provide the requisite teacher support, advocacy, and classroom climate to develop a sense of belonging. This is also consistent with both the Parker et al. (2013) and Watt et al. (2008) studies indicating that AVID’s family-like environment and student-teacher relationships improved academic motivation and achievement.

In addition to a focus on writing, inquiry, collaboration, and reading strategies, AVID also emphasizes organization and note taking to enhance study skills. Previous research has found that African American students confident in their study skills had higher academic self-efficacy (Jonson-Reid, Davis, Saunders, Williams, & Williams, 2005). These AVID strategies targeting the affective and cognitive domain are consistent with Usher and Pajares’s (2006) findings that social persuasion and mastery experiences were more predictive of self-efficacy among African Americans than others.

Among Latino/a students neither the covariates nor years-in-AVID had an impact on student self-efficacy. These findings must be viewed within the context of this school district, which is located in a predominantly White, conservative county in central Florida (Florida Department of State, 2014). In the district, approximately 30% of the total student population in Grades 6 through 12 are Latino/a, while only 5% of the teachers are Latino/a (Florida Department of Education, 2014). Unlike the counties in the vicinity of the Texas-Mexico border or the Miami-Dade, Florida, area, the district is located in a county that does not necessarily express the values of the Latino/a communities. Some studies have indicated that biculturalism leads to greater self-efficacy relative to education aspirations (Aguayo et al., 2011).

Although AVID emphasizes the cultural capital and academic tools necessary for college preparation, more emphasis may be needed to promote Mexican student acculturation. Research has shown that vicarious experiences are greater predictors of self-efficacy for Latino/a students than both mastery experience and social persuasion (Stevens et al., 2006). In light of this, the demographic make up of AVID teachers and the vicarious experiences involving Latino/a tutors and role models may need further examination. Again, this evaluation focused on short-term products. A holistic evaluation concentrating on AVID’s context, inputs, and processes may illuminate these potential issues further.

Influence of AVID on GPA and Attendance

In this investigation, we also sought to determine the extent to which the AVID program influenced participants’ GPAs and school attendance. The influence of AVID exposure on GPA added a small but statistically significant improvement to the explained variance over and above that provided by the covariates of age and grade level. With the help of college tutors and the WICOR curriculum, AVID was hypothesized to improve student GPAs. This study was one of only a few reviewed which found a statistically significant and positive relationship between AVID and GPA. The Black et al. (2008) investigation of AVID and non-AVID middle school cohorts found that the AVID program had a significant impact on middle school GPAs in English and language arts. However, most studies reviewed found that AVID did not appear to improve GPA (Guthrie & Guthrie, 2000; Watt et al., 2007), and while this study indicated that AVID’s influence on GPA was statistically significant, the AVID program cannot be considered a strong predictor of that variable for the full sample. Conversely, among its African American students, the AVID program was a stronger predictor of GPA. The length of exposure to AVID for African American students added 12% of explained variance beyond that provided by age and grade level. Of the studies reviewed, these results provide some of the strongest evidence supporting AVID’s influence on student achievement.

Exposure to AVID did not improve the GPA among the Latino/a students in this study. The stronger influence of the predictor variables age and grade on GPA among Latino/a students may be related to context. Many of the students in the Latino/a group are first- and second-generation immigrants. As many of these students get older and progress through middle and high school, there may be additional pressure to help support their families by working in the area’s numerous citrus groves and tomato fields. This supports the research literature indicating that the academic achievement of many first-generation immigrants suffers, as they must contend with more pressing family and work obligations (Aguayo et al., 2011; Phinney, Dennis, & Osorio, 2006). These results are also consistent with the Watt et al. (2007) investigation of the impact of AVID and GEAR UP on a Latino/a student academic achievement in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas.

Last, the data showed that time in AVID was related to students’ school attendance, over and above that provided by age and grade level. Among African American students, years of exposure to AVID were not strong predictors of attendance (albeit statistically significant). Latino/a students were positively affected by AVID exposure, with time in AVID adding a small but significant amount of explained variance. These results support the majority of the research reviewed, indicating a positive association between AVID and attendance rates (Watt et al., 2004; Watt et al., 2002).

Limitations

The results of this study should be viewed in light of the limitations. First, it was a study of AVID in a single school district with a Latino/a population that differs from that in other parts of the country. It should also be noted that student participants with no exposure to AVID were taken from both middle and high school advanced language arts classes, potentially understating the impact of the AVID program. These students may well have had stronger motivation in terms of self-efficacy for academic achievement and self-efficacy for self-regulation than their peers, as well as higher GPAs and stronger attendance. The influence of these high achieving students in the non-AVID group may have been stronger among the Latino/a and African American group analyses because these samples were smaller and thus more sensitive to fluctuations of this kind.

Implications and Future Research

Although program evaluations are contextual in nature, the findings may be of interest to district- and building-level school leaders across the country, as they search for strategies to reduce achievement gaps. AVID can be one among many programmatic options from which to choose, especially given its impact on African American student self-efficacy and student achievement. The statistically significant results of the AVID program collectively and the positive correlations associated with African American students suggest that the district’s program has been modestly effective and has the potential to increase student achievement. Given the positive results among African American students’ GPA and self-efficacy, future research on AVID should explore why this was the case. What are the mediating variables associated with AVID’s unique influence African American students? Extant literature suggests that factors such as feelings of school belonging and ethnic identity contribute to self-efficacy and academic achievement (Thomas et al., 2009). Do AVID and similar programs provide students with a greater sense of belonging and positively support ethnic identity? Given findings indicating a solid correlation between the AVID program and African American students’ self-efficacy, it is interesting that the same results did not hold for Latino/a students. The answer may be associated with AVID’s ability to adequately address the impact of acculturation on its Latino/a student populations. It may also be that the positive influences of the AVID program cannot compete with the economic pressures experienced by the children of migrant farm workers.

While this study provides some important insight into the impact of the AVID program in a particular district, the results can only be considered suggestive due to limitations within the study and peculiarities of this context. A longitudinal examination of effects of AVID program on self-efficacy using an experimental design, in which students are randomly assigned to an experimental group and one or more control groups, and with data obtained at both pretest and posttest observations, would provide more insight into the long-term impact of AVID on student self-efficacy. In addition, structured interviews of AVID participants may help answer the question of which AVID processes are most effective. Answers to these questions could provide school district leaders alternatives in determining the most appropriate programs to solve the myriad problems facing their struggling ethnic minority communities. Furthermore, this study may suggest productive strategies for addressing the persistent and intractable problem of academic achievement gaps among ethnic minority and low-income students.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Philip M. Pugh, Jr., EdD, is a retired Army officer and former professor of Military Science (department chair) at Louisiana State University. He is currently a seven-year teacher in Manatee County Public Schools in Florida and a graduate of the College of William and Mary’s School of Education.

Megan Tschannen-Moran (PhD, The Ohio State University) is a professor of Educational Leadership at the College of William and Mary. Her research focuses on relationships of trust in school settings and how these are related to important outcomes such as the collective efficacy beliefs of a school faculty, teacher professionalism, and student achievement. Another line of research examines teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs and the relationship of those beliefs to teacher behavior and student outcomes.

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