The article examines the consequences, thus far under-investigated in transnational migration studies, of forced population movements for the societies and cultures of the sending/expelling countries. The cases considered are immense forced migrations, involving over 80 million people, across and outside Eastern Europe during the twentieth century. The discussion focuses on the consequences of these involuntary movements in the public sphere, including effects on the collective (group) self-perceptions and representations of others (non-group) and inter- and intra-group relations; on national/ethnic culture (collective memory, customs, value orientations); on domestic and international relations; and on human resources (skills, abilities) and economic growth.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AlexieievaL.1984Istoria Inakomyslia v SSSR. Noveishi Period.Benson, VA: Khronika Press.
2.
AltshulerM.1987Soviet Jewry since the Second World War. Population and Social Structure.New York: Greenwood Press.
3.
ArdittisS., ed. 1994The Politics of East-West Migration.London: Macmillan.
4.
ArthurP.1991“Diaspora Intervention in International Affairs: Irish America as a Case Study.”Diaspora, 1, Fall.
5.
BakulaB.1997“Z Kresow na kresy. Migracje Spoleczenstw Polskiego w Literaturze Krajowej po 1945R.” In Utracona Ojczyzna. Eds. OrlowskiH. and SaksonA.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni. Pp. 225–237.
6.
BaskokT. and BrymR., eds. 1991Soviet-Jewish Emigration and Resettlement in the 1990s.Toronto: York Lanes Press.
7.
BenzW.1985Die Vertreibung aus dem Osten. Ursachen, Ereignisse, Folgen.Frankfurt: Fischer.
8.
BerendI.1996Central and Eastern Europe 1944–1993: Detour from the Periphery to the Periphery.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9.
BerendI. and RankiG.1982The European Periphery and Industrialization, 1780–1914.New York: Columbia University Press.
10.
BerendI. and RankiG.1974Economic Development of East Central Europe in the 19th and 20th Centuries.New York: Columbia University Press.
11.
BergerD., ed. 1983The Legacy of Jewish Migration: 1881 and Beyond.New York: Columbia University Press.
12.
BodrovaV. and RegentT.1994“Russia and the CIS.” In The Politics of East-West Migration. Ed. ArdittisS.London: Macmillan. Pp. 98–110.
13.
BorsodyS.1980The Tragedy of Central Europe: Nazi and Soviet Conquest and Aftermath.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
14.
BrubakerR.1995“National Minorities, Nationalizing States, and External National Homelands in the New Europe.”Daedalus, 124(2):107–132.
15.
BrubakerR.1994“Nationhood and the National Question in the Soviet Union and post-Soviet Eurasia: An Institutionalist Account,”Theory and Society, 23:47–78.
16.
BrymR.1994The Jews of Moscow, Kiev and Minsk. Identity, Antisemitism, Emigration.New York: NYU Press.
BujakF.1902Zmiaca. Wies Powiatu Limanowskiego.Cracow: Gebethner.
19.
BujakF.1902Limanowa. Miasteczko Powiatu Rzeszowskiego.Cracow: Gebethner.
20.
Cambridge University Press1994The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Former Soviet Union.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
21.
CaplanR. and FefferJ., eds. 1994Europe's New Nationalism.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
22.
CarrE.1968Nationalism and After.London: Macmillan.
23.
ChirotD., ed. 1989The Origins of Backwardness in Eastern Europe.Berkeley: University of California Press.
24.
ChirotD., ed. 1986Social Change in the Modern Era.San Diego: Harcourt, Brace.
25.
ChruslinskaI.1994Byla Raz KULTURA. Rozmowy z Zofia Hertz.Warsaw: MOST.
26.
CiesielskiS., et al.1993Masowe Deportacje Radzieckie w Okresie II Wokjny Swiatowej.Wroclaw: Ossolineum.
27.
CohenR.1997“Victim Diasporas.” In Global Diasporas. Ed. CohenR.University of Washington Press. Pp. 31–57.
28.
CohenR.1994Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding.Princeton: Princeton University Press.
29.
CohenR.1984The National Question in Marxist-Leninist Theory and Strategy.Princeton: Princeton University Press.
30.
ConnorW.1979Socialism, Politics, and Equality. Hierarchy and Change in Eastern Europe and the USSR.New York: Columbia University Press.
31.
ConquestR., ed. 1986The Last Empire. Nationality and the Soviet Future.Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution Press.
32.
ConquestR., ed. 1967Soviet Nationalities Policy in Practice.London: Bodley Head.
33.
DanforthL.1994“National Conflict in a Transnational World: Greeks and Macedonians at the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe,”Diaspora, 3:325–343.
34.
DickerH.1981Piety and Perseverance: Jews from the Carpathian Mountains.New York: Sepher-Hermon Press.
35.
DoomernikJ.1997Going West. Soviet Jewish Immigrants in Berlin since 1990.Aldershot: Avebury.
36.
DylinskiR., et al., eds. 1974Wysiedlenia i Poniewierka, 1939–1945. Wspomnienia (Expulsions and Wanderings, 1939–1945. Memoirs).
37.
ElmT.1997“O Brakach Historii i Pozytkach z Literatury. Ucieczka i Wypedzenie jako Problem Przedstawienia.” In Ultracona Ojczyzna. Ed. OrlowskiH. and SaksonA.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni. Pp. 209–224.
38.
ErlangerS.1993“A Cry of Pain Rises from the Soviet Science,”The New York Times, November 21. P. E8.
39.
FassmannH. and MunzR.1994“La Migration d'Est en Ouest en Europe (1918–1993).”Revue Europeenne des Migrations Internationales, 11(3):43–66.
40.
FerencziI. and WillcoxW.1929International Migrations.Geneva: International Labor Office. 2 vols.
41.
FikM., ed. 1992Miedzy Polska a Swiatem. Kultura Emigracyjna po 1939 Roku.Warszawa: Krag.
42.
FreedmanR., ed. 1989Soviet Jewry in the 1980s.Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
43.
GebenK.1994“Jewish Identities in Poland: New, Old, and Imaginary.” In Jewish Identities in New Europe. Ed. WebberJ.London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization. Pp. 161–170.
44.
GeorgeD. L.1938“The Truths about the Peace Treaties”The Daily Chronicle. London.
45.
GierowskiJ.1997“Stoi Przed Nami Zadanie Gruntownej Rewizji Dziejow…,”Proglas, 5–6:5–7. May.
46.
GittelmanZ.1988A Century of Ambivalence: The Jews of Russia and the Soviet Union, 1881 to the Present.New York: Schocken.
47.
GlatzF., ed. 1995Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times, 1867–1950.New York: Columbia University Press.
48.
Goodwin-GillG.1990“Different Types of Forced Migration Movements as an International and National Problem.” In The Uprooted. Forced Migration as an International Problem in the Post-War Era. Ed. RystadG.Lund University Press. Pp. 15–46.
49.
Goodwin-GillG.1978International Law and the Movement of Persons Between States. Clarendon Press.
GouldJ. D.1980“European Inter-Continental Emigration: The Role of'Diffusion’ and Feedback,”Journal of European Economic History, 9:41–112.
52.
GouldJ. D.1979“European Intercontinental Emigration, 1815–1914: Patterns and Causes,”Journal of European Economic History, 8:593–890.
53.
GrathoffR.1994“Polish Neighborhoods.” In The Neighborhood of Cultures. Ed. GrathoffR. and KloskowskaA.Warsaw: IPS Polish Academy of Sciences. Pp. 15–26.
54.
GrathoffR. and KloskowskaA., eds. 1994The Neighborhood of Cultures.Warsaw: IPS Polish Academy of Sciences.
55.
GreenbergL.1965The Jews of Russia.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
56.
GreenfeldL.1992Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity.Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
57.
GreenfeldL. and ChirotD.1995“Nationalism and Aggression,”Theory and Society, 23:79–130.
58.
GrossJ.1988Revolution from Abroad. The Soviet Conquest of Poland's Western Ukraine and Western Belorussia.Princeton: Princeton University Press.
59.
GrossJ. and GrudzinskaI.1983‘W Czterdziestym nas Matko na Sybir Zeslali…’ Polska a Rosja 1939–1942.London: Aneks.
60.
GurjanowA.1997“Transporty Deportacyjne z Polskich Kresow Wschodnich w Okresie 1940–41.” In Utracona Ojczyzna. Ed. OrlowskiH. and SaksonA.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni. Pp. 75–92.
61.
HannumH.1987The Right to Leave and Return in International Law and Practice. Nijhoff.
62.
HeitmanS.1989Soviet Emigration Since Gorbatchev.Koln: Berichte des Bundesinstituts fur Ostwissenschaftliche und Internationale Studien.
63.
HerbertU.1986Geschichte der Auslanderbeschaftigung in Deutschland 1880–1980. Saisonarbeiter, Gastarbeiter, Zwangsarbeiter.Berlin: Dietz.
64.
HoerderD. and MichL. P., eds. 1996European Migrants: Global and Local Perspectives.Boston: Northeastern University Press.
65.
HoffmanE.1989Lost in Translation.New York: E. P. Dutton.
66.
HooverH.1942The Problems of Lasting Peace. New York.
67.
HorakS.1985Eastern European National Minorities, 1919–1980. A Handbook.Littleton, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
68.
HryniewiczJ., et al.1992The Brain Drain in Poland.Warsaw: Warsaw University Institute for Regional and Local Development.
69.
JacobsonM. F.1995Special Sorrows. The Diasporic Imagination of Irish, Polish, and Jewish Immigrants in the United States.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
70.
JanicsK.1982Czechoslovak Policy and the Hungarian Minority 1945–1948.New York: Columbia University Press.
71.
JezierskiA. and LeszczynskaC.1997Historia Gospodarcza Polski.Warsaw: Key Text.
72.
JohanssonR.1990“The Refugee Experience in Europe after World War II: Some Theoretical and Empirical Considerations.” In The Uprooted. Forced Migration as an International Problem in the Post-War Era. Ed. RystadG.Lund University Press. Pp. 227–270.
73.
JoppkeC.1996“Multiculturalism and Immigration: A Comparison of the United States, Germany, and Great Britain,”Theory and Society, 25(4):449–500.
74.
JusdanisG.1991“Greek Americans and the Diaspora,”Diaspora, 1(2):209–221.
75.
KatzZ.1972Patterns of Social Stratification in the U.S.S.R.Cambridge: MIT Center for International Studies.
76.
KatzZ.et al.1975Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities.New York: The Free Press.
77.
KerstenK.1997“Przymusowe Przemieszczenia Ludnosci: Proba Typologii.” In Utracona Ojczyzna. Ed. OrlowskiH. and SaksonA.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni.
78.
KesslerJ.1997Judische Migration aus der ehemaligen Sowjetunion seit 1990. Beispiel Berlin.Berlin: Eigenverlag.
79.
KloskowskaA.1994“National Identification and the Transgression of National Boundaries. The Steps Toward Universalization.” In The Neighborhood of Cultures. Ed. GrathoffR. and KloskowskaA.Warsaw: ISP Polish Academy of Sciences. Pp. 178–190.
80.
KluchhohnF. R.1950“Dominant and Substitute Profiles of Cultural Orientations: Their Significance for the Analysis of Social Stratification,”Social Forces, 28:376–393. May.
81.
KohnH.1961The Idea of Nationalism.London: Macmillan.
82.
KolankiewiczG.1973“The Technical Intelligentsia.” In Social Groups in Polish Society. Ed. LaneD. and KolankiewiczG.New York: Columbia University Press.
83.
KolstoP.1993“The New Russian Diaspora: Minority Protection in the Soviet Successor States,”Journal of Peace Research, 30(2):197–217.
84.
KowalskaE.1995“Podstawy Prawne Przymusowych Przesiedlen Narodow Zwiazku Radzieckiego.” In Migracje i Spoleczenstwo. Ed. ZamoyskiJ.Warsaw: Instytut Historii PAN. Pp. 69–82.
85.
KovacsA.1993“Jews and Hungarians: Group Stereotypes among Hungarian University Students,”East European Jewish Affairs, 23(2):51–59.
86.
Koziello-PoklewskiB. and LukaszewiczB., eds. 1982“Cziecinstwo i Mlodosc ze Znakiem “P.” Wspomnienia.” Olsztyn.
87.
KozlovV.1988The Peoples of the Soviet Union.Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
88.
KrajewskiA.1989Region USA.London: Aneks.
89.
KrejciJ. and MachoninP.1994Czechoslovakia, 1918–1992.Oxford: Macmillan.
90.
KrupnikI.1995“Soviet Cultural and Ethnic Policies toward Jews: A Legacy Reassessed.” In Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union. Ed. Ro'iY.Frank Cass. Pp. 67–86.
91.
KubiakH. and WrobelJ., eds. 1984II Kongres Uczonych Polskiego Pochodzenia.Wroclaw: Ossolineum.
92.
KugelmassJ.1980“Native Aliens: The Jews of Poland as a Middleman Minority.” Ph.D. dissertation, The New School for Social Research.
93.
KulischerE.1948Europe on the Move. War and Population Changes, 1917–1947.New York: Columbia University Press.
94.
KuznetsS.1975“Immigration of Russian Jews to the United States: Background and Structure,”Perspectives in American History, 9:35–126.
95.
KymlickaW.1995Multicultural Citizenship. A Liberal Theory of Minority Rights.Oxford: Clarendon Press.
96.
LembergH.1997“Problem Wypedzen w Polityce Europejskiej XX Wieku.” In Ultracona Ojczyzna. Ed. OrlowskiH. and SaksonA.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni. Pp. 31–44.
97.
LembergE. and EddingF., eds. 1959Die Vertrieben in Westdeutschland. Vols. 1–3. Kiel: Hirt.
98.
LendaviP.1971Antisemitism without Jews: Communist Eastern Europe.Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
99.
LevinN.1990The Jews in the Soviet Union since 1917. Paradox of Survival.New York: NYU Press.
100.
LovA.1990Soviet Jewry and Soviet Policy. New York.
101.
MacartneyC.A.1937Hungary and Her Successors: The Treaty of Trianon and its Consequences, 1919–1937.London: Oxford University Press.
102.
MarkowitzF.1995“Emigration, Immigration, and Cultural Change: Toward a Trans-national ‘Russian-Jewish Community?” In Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union. Ed. Ro'iY.New York: Frank Cass. Pp. 403–413.
103.
MarrusM.1985The Unwanted. European Refugees in the Twentieth Century.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
104.
MazurZ., ed. 1997Wokol Niemieckiego Dziedzictwa Kulturowego na Ziemiach Zachodnich i Polnocnych.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni.
MisiunasR. and TaageperaR.1983The Baltic States: Years of Dependence 1940–1990.Berkeley: University of California Press.
107.
MisztalJ.1997“Wysiedlenia i Repatriacja Obywateli Polskich z ZSRR a Wysiedlenia i Przesiedlenia Niemcow z Polski — Proba Bilansu.” In Utracona Ojczyzna. Ed. OrlowskiH. and SaksonA.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni. Pp. 45–74.
108.
MorawskaE.1997“Structuring Migration in a Historical Perspective: The Case of Traveling East Europeans.” European University-Forum on International Migrations. Working paper. Florence.
109.
MorawskaE.1987“Labor Migrations of Poles in the Atlantic World-Economy, 1880–1914.” In Comparative Studies in Society and History, 2:237–272.
110.
MorawskaE. and SpohnW.1997“Moving Europeans in the Globalizing World: Contemporary Migrations in a Historical Perspective (1955–1995 v. 1870–1914).” In Global History and Migrations. Ed. GungwuW.Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Pp. 23–62.
111.
MrozL.1991“Problemy Etniczne w Litwie Wschodniej,”Przeglad Wschodni, 1(3):487–506.
112.
MyerhoffB.1979Number Our Days.New York: Dutton.
113.
NiederhauserE.1995“Peoples and Nations in the Habsburg Monarchy.” In Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times. Ed. GlatzF.New York: Columbia University Press. Pp. 7–12.
114.
NugentW.1992Crossings. The Great Transatlantic Migrations, 1870–1914.Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
115.
OrlowskiH.1997“O Asymetrii Deprywacji. Ucieczka, Deportacja i Wysiedlenie w. Niemieckiej i Polskiej Literaturze po 1939 R.” In Utracona Ojczyzna. Ed. OrlowskiH. and SaksonA.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni. Pp. 189–208.
116.
OschliesW.1989“Polnischer ‘Drang nach Westen': Dynamik und Motive der junsten Emigrationswelle aus Polen,”Berichte des Bundesinstituts fur ostwissenschaftliche und internationale Studien, 30.
117.
OssowskiS.1967“Analiza Socjologiczna Pojecia Ojczyzny.” In Z Zagadnien Psychologii Spolecznej. Ed. OssowskiS.Warsaw: PWN.
118.
PalamarchukD.1991“Stupywszy na Intynsku Zemlu,”Dnipro, 7:76.
119.
Pamietniki Wysiedlonych w Wyniku II Wojny Swiatowej i Jej Nastepstw, 1939–19601993 (essays submitted to the Contest for Memoirs of the Deported and Expelled as the Result of World War II and its Outcome, 1939–1960), organized by KARTA in Poznan, Poland.
120.
PomianK.1997Rozmowy z Jerzym Giedroyciem. Warsaw.
121.
ProudfootM.1953European Refugees: 1939–52. A Study in Forced Population Movement.London: Faber and Faber.
122.
RaeffM.1990Russia Abroad. A Cultural History of the Russian Emigration, 1919–1939.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
123.
RazJ.1994“Multiculturalism: A Liberal Perspective,”Dissent, 67–79. Winter.
124.
RhodeB.1994“Brain Drain, Brain Gain, Brain Waste: Reflections on the Emigration of Highly Educated and Scientific Personnel from Eastern Europe.” In The New Geography of European Migrations. Ed. KingR.London: Belhaven Press. Pp. 228–245.
125.
Ro' iY., ed. 1995Jews and Jewish Life in Russia and the Soviet Union.New York: Frank Cass.
126.
RooseveltT.1922–26 The Works. Vol. 12. New York: Scribner.
127.
RothkirchenL.1986“Deep-rooted Yet Alien: Some Aspects of the History of Jews in Subcarpathian Ruthenia,”Carpatho Rusyn Center Monograph, 147–191.
128.
RubchakM.1993“Dancing with the Bones: A Comparative Study of two Ukrainian Exilic Societies,”Diaspora, 2(3):337–352.
129.
RubchakM.1992“God Made Me a Lithuanian: Nationalist Ideologies and the Constructions of North American Diaspora,”Diaspora, 2(1):117–129.
130.
RystadG., ed. 1990The Uprooted. Forced Migrations as an International Problem in the Post-War Era.Lund: University Press.
131.
SafranW.1991“Diasporas in Modern Societies: Myths of Homeland and Return.”Diaspora, 1(1):83–99.
132.
SalomonK.1991Refugees in the Cold War.Lund: Lund University Press.
133.
SchechtmanJ.1962Postwar Population Transfers in Europe, 1945–1955.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
134.
SchiederT., ed. 1953–61 Dokumentation der Vertreibung der Deutschen aus Ost-Mitteleuropa.5 vols. Bonn: Bundesministerium Fur Vertriebene.
135.
SchindlerC.1978Exit Visa, Human Rights and the Jewish Emigration Movement in the USSR.London: Buchman and Turner.
136.
SchoepsJ., JasperW. and VogtB.1996Russische Juden in Deutschland.Weinheim: Beltz Athenaum Verlag.
137.
SchopflinG.1997“Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in Post-Communist Europe.” In Europe's New Nationalism. Ed. CaplanR. and FefferJ.Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. 151–168.
138.
SchopflinG.1995Politics in Eastern Europe, 1945–1992.Oxford: Blackwell.
139.
ShainY.1993Democrats and Secessionists: U.S. Diasporas as Regime Destabilizers.” In International Migration and Security. Ed. WeinerM.Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Pp. 287–322.
140.
ShainY., ed. 1991Governments-in-Exile in Contemporary World Politics.New York: Routledge.
141.
ShamshurO.1992“Ukraine in the Context of New European Migrations,”International Migration Review, 26(2):258–268.
142.
ShefferG.1993“Ethnic Diasporas: A Threat to Their Hosts?” In International Migration and Security. Ed. WeinerM.Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Pp. 263–285.
143.
ShevtsovaL.1992“Post-Soviet Emigration Today and Tomorrow,”International Migration Review, 26(2):241–257.
144.
SimanovskyS.1994“Brain Drain from the Former Soviet Union and the Position of International Community,”Osteuropa-Wirtschaft, 30(1):17–25.
145.
SimonR.1985New Lives, The Adjustment of Soviet Jewish Immigrants in the United States and Israel.Boston: Lexington Books.
146.
SipavicieneA., ed. 1997International Migration in Lithuania. United Nations European Commission for Europe.
147.
SkillingG.1989Samizdat and an Independent Society in Central and Eastern Europe.London: Macmillan.
148.
SlanyK.1995Miedzy Przymusem a Wyborem. Kontynentalne i Zamorskie Emigracje z Krajow Europy Srodkowo-Wschodniej, 1939–1989.Cracow: Jagiellonian University Press.
149.
SmithG., ed. 1983The Nationalities Question in the Soviet Union.London: Longman.
150.
StolaD.1992“Forced Migrations in Central European History,”International Migration Review, 26(2):324–341.
SugarP. and LedererI., eds. 1969Nationalism in Eastern Europe.Seattle: University of Washington Press.
153.
SzajkowskiB., et al.1993Encyclopedia of Conflicts, Disputes, and Flashpoints in Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Successor States.London: Longman.
154.
SzczepanskiJ.1970Polish Society.New York: Random House.
155.
SzporlukR.1989“Dilemmas of Russian Nationalism,”Problems of Communism, 38:15–35. July/August.
156.
TaylorC.1992Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition.Princeton: Princeton University Press.
157.
TchalakovI.1992External Migration amongst Bulgarian Scientists in the beginning of the 1990s.Sofia: Institute of Sociology.
158.
TeichM. and PorterR., eds. 1993The National Question in Europe in Historical Perspective.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
159.
TemperleyH.1969A History of Peace Conference.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
160.
TilkovszkyL.1995“Cultural Policy Concerning the Nationalities.” In Hungarians and Their Neighbors in Modern Times, 1867–1950. Ed. GlatzF.New York: Columbia University Press. Pp. 159–168.
161.
TismanyanuV.1992Reinventing Politics. Eastern Europe from Stalin to Havel.New York: The Free Press.
162.
TomaszewskiJ.1991“International Migrations Connected with the National Conflicts in East-Central Europe in the First Half of the XXth Century,”Acta Slavica Iaponica, 9:1–31.
163.
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees1994The State of the World's Refugees: The Challenge of Protection. Penguin.
164.
VincentR. J.1986Human Rights and International Relations.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
165.
WalzerM.1997On Toleration.New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
166.
WasylenkoW.1997“Deukrainizaja 1933–53. Refleksje Historyczne-Refleksje Poetyckie.” In Utracona Ojczyzna. Ed. OrlowskiH. and SaksonA.Poznan: Instytut Zachodni. Pp. 93–118.
167.
WebberJ., ed. 1994Jewish Identities in the New Europe.London: Littman Library of Jewish Civilization.
168.
WeinerM., ed. 1993International Migration and Security.Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
169.
WesolowskiW.1967“Social Stratification in Socialist Society (Some Theoretical Problems),”Polish Sociological Bulletin, 1.
170.
WestwoodJ. N.1993Endurance and Endeavour. Russian History 1812–1992.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
171.
WilmsenE. and McAllisterP., eds. 1996The Politics of Difference.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
172.
WiskemanE.1967Czechs and Germans.New York: Macmillan.
173.
WiszniewiczJ.1992Z Polski do Izraela. Rozmowy z Pokoleniem ‘68.Poznan: Karta.
174.
ZayonchkovskyaZ.1999“Recent Migration Trends in Russia.” In Population Under Duress, The Geodemography of Post-Soviet Russia. Ed. DemkoG., IoffeG., and ZayonchkovskayaZ.Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Pp. 107–136.
175.
ZemskowW. N.1991“Zakluczonnyje, Spiecposielency, Ssylnoposielency, Ssylnyje i Wyslannyje. Statistiko-Gieogrzf-czeskij Aspiekt,” Istorija SSSR, 5:154–156.
