QR codes for instrumental performance in the music classroom

Abstract

This article presents an experiment with a group of secondary school music students in Spain. We used music score sheets enriched with Quick Response codes as a resource for the practice required to play a musical instrument. The first group (n = 56) was compared with another group (n = 56) that used traditional resources (textbooks and compact discs). The results of the research supported the fact that the students who used QR codes associated with videos – read by using mobile devices such as smartphones or tablets – achieved better results than those who used more traditional resources. The analysis of variance test showed that the learning resource had a significant effect on the scores obtained by the students. In other words, the marks of the students participating in the study varied significantly according to the resource used. There was no significant effect on the interaction of method and gender, so there is no relation between the students’ gender and the resources’ impact on the results obtained by students.

Keywords

Instrumental performance media in education QR codes secondary education teaching and learning strategies

Introduction

Playing a musical instrument is one of the most complex activities in secondary schools, and teaching to play with increasing accuracy, fluency, control and expression can be a big challenge.

Although some studies maintain that expressive skills are essential for musical performance (Juslin and Laukka, 2004), empirical studies such as those by Young, Burwell, and Pickup (2003) suggest that musical instrument teaching primarily focuses on technique rather than expression. In fact, many musical instrument methods do not cover expressive aspects at all and concentrate on acquiring good technique (see trumpet methods such as those by H. Clarke or J. Stamp, among many others). This is one of the starting points of our study, together with the use of technologies to facilitate and improve the learning process when practising to play a musical instrument.

The exponential growth of mobile technology provides alternatives not only for interpersonal communication and access to information and networks through the Internet, but also for teaching and learning (Chen, Teng, Lee, et al., 2011). For Hsi (2003), the progress in computer technology has made it possible for learning to happen in any place, creating an environment of mobile learning or m-learning that integrates e-learning, wireless Internet and mobile technologies. Within those technologies, we will focus especially on the use of mobile devices, mainly smartphones, which are the devices used by all the students in this research. As suggested by Tatar, Roschelle, Vahey, et al. (2003), the integration of mobile devices in learning allows students to explore and interact with information at their own pace, regardless of changes in school or the availability of technologies in the classroom.

Many studies related to the advantage of using mobile devices in education have been published in the last few years (Alsadoon and Alsadoon, 2015; Denk, Weber, and Belfin, 2007). Mobile devices encourage, logically, mobile learning, which can transform pedagogy to adapt to new generations of students, using active learning strategies and giving them the opportunity to learn in their own context, which leads to a higher level of learning. Also, mobile devices can connect digital resources and printed material. Doing this, when a student has questions about the printed material, he can access a digital resource from a library and listen to a recorded version of the music he is trying to play (Chen, Teng, Lee, et al., 2011). A new design of mobile phone, the smartphone, ‘is a sophisticated integration of a media player, a personal data assistant and a netbook computer. It is nowadays empowered with powerful computing and networking capability for communication’ (Chen, Teng, Lee, et al., 2011: 1706).

Mobile devices have become intermediary for those users that explore new content, converting printed documents into interactive objects with enriched information (Vandi and Djebbari, 2011). Therefore, for this research, we have created a system of scores that incorporate Quick Response (QR) codes. A QR code is a two-dimensional machine-readable optical label that contains information about the items to which it is attached (URL, text, video, etc.). It consists of black modules (square dots) arranged in a square grid on a white background, which can be read by an imaging device (i.e. a smartphone camera or a scanner). Mobile technologies and QR codes facilitate the process of personalising learning and make it possible for the student to learn anywhere and any time. Studies like the one by Kester, Kirschner, and van Merriënboer (2004) demonstrate that, when relevant information is available immediately, learning improves. This could contribute to solving some restrictions and problems in the classroom (fixed schedule, students’ distraction, etc.). Although studies such as the one by Chen, Teng, Lee, et al. (2011) suggest that direct access to digital resources using QR codes does not significantly influence the improvement of certain skills (in this case, students’ reading comprehension), in the field of musical interpretation we can infer that this technology could be an effective alternative to other resources, such as compact discs or the traditional textbook, in working with a musical instrument.

QR codes are being used in a wide variety of educational activities. They make possible a direct link between the physical world (printed material) and the virtual world (online resources). Digital resources can be developed or selected by the teacher and filtered according to the students’ age and level of abilities (Skeele, 2013). Also, most students, if not all, already have mobile devices and there is a variety of applications to read QR codes, many of them free and available for any operating system, making it an affordable and accessible tool for everyone. Among the educational uses of QR codes we can mention:

History learning with QR codes (Chen and Choi, 2010);

A periodic table with each chemical element represented by a QR code (Bonifácio, 2012);

QR codes used to create Treasure Hunts (Sharma, 2013); and

Language learning supported by QR codes or creating digital portfolios for students with links to the projects and assignments (Liu, Tan, and Chu, 2010).

In music education, we can use QR codes in many different ways. For example, it is possible to use it to visualise a music score whose QR code links to the performance’s recording or specific musical exercises related to the score and or the musical instrument. Another possibility is for students to create posters of their favourite artists including QR codes. These codes could link to videos with performances by their favourite artists, to a map with their location or their biography in Wikipedia (Wardrobe, 2013). The student may also have a score that needs to be written with notation software, and this score can have a QR code that connects to a video tutorial that shows how to notate the score using this specific piece of software. A score for a band or an orchestra can have a QR code near the title that leads us to the information about the composer and the history of the composition.

In this paper, we propose an approach to QR codes with an original treatment based on the use of strategically placed QR codes in a musical score, so that students can check at any time how they should interpret excerpts of a musical theme with an instrument. The QR codes link to videos with the version of the corresponding excerpt.

Research studies such as the one by Palazón-Herrera and Giráldez (2014) support the use of online videos as a useful tool for instrumental practice in secondary schools, helping students achieve positive results, especially in classrooms with too many students. Videos can be a useful tool for the students as they offer a role model (their teacher) that can be imitated. Callaghan (1998) (referring to the training in bel canto) and Jørgensen (2004) (referring to the teacher–student relationship in music lessons) consider that one of the main strategies used by students for learning is based on imitation, and the videos used for this research are also designed so that students have a role model that they can imitate. Online video, is leading to a methodology based on the flipped classroom, popularised by Bergman and Sams (2012). Grant (2013) suggests different types of musical activities that can be carried out in higher education using the flipped classroom methodology. Some researchers (Flumerfelt and Green, 2013) have begun to explore the potential of this methodology, and studies such as those by Mason, Shuman, and Cook (2013) and Mattis (2015) have already contrasted the benefits of methodologies such as the flipped classroom compared to a more traditional methodology. However, there is little data, especially in general education, about the effectiveness of the flipped classroom when compared with more traditional methodologies (DeSantis, van Curen, Putsch, et al., 2015). We believe that this paper contributes relevant information to the field of music education at this educational level.

This paper explores how two different educational resources used for the same purpose (to improve instrumental performance) can produce different results. The study is intended to answer the main research question:

Can QR codes associated with online videos produce better results compared to the traditional textbook and an audio compact disc (CD)?

Methodology

This section describes the conceptual frame, the implementation of a new system of scores and an experiment intended to evaluate the effectiveness of that system.

The context and participants

This study was carried out at a secondary school in the region of Murcia, in Spain. The study was limited to year-11 secondary school music students (16 years old). A sample of 112 students (60 boys and 52 girls) was obtained using non-probability sampling by convenience, that is, a sampling of the most convenient individuals (Blaxter, Hughes, and Tight, 2005). For Úriz, Ballestero, Viscarret, et al. (2006), this type of sampling chooses individuals at complete discretion, for accessibility reasons and other criteria. That being the case for this work, the sample includes students taught by the teacher/researcher during the academic year 2014/2015.

We obtained the principal’s authorization to initiate this study. Students were informed about all the research details, and they knew that participation was voluntary and would not affect their grades.

The conceptual framework

Music students in secondary education (from 12 to 16 years old) show a very low level of skill in playing a musical instrument (Orff instruments or descant recorders are the most common in Spanish schools). The excessive number of students per classroom and the lack of educational materials aimed at this type of practice do not favour a reasonable instrumental level. We must keep in mind that the quality of music reading of students at this educational level is poor, so a visual support can strengthen their score reading skills. Also, musical instrument teaching aimed at very large groups hinders the individual attention that, in many cases, is necessary during instrumental practice (to correct fingering when playing the recorder, the position of hands when reading a score to play a piece, etc.). All of these factors have an impact on the quality of interpretation. In Australia, for example, instrumental music is important in secondary education, and the study of musical instruments is taught by specialists, with 20–30 min lessons for groups of 1–5 students (Lowe, 2012), whereas in Spain these lessons are aimed for groups of 25–30 students, which severely hinders instrumental practice. In this case, the QR codes may compensate for the lack of face-to-face tuition and is one of the main resources that allow students to practice both in the classroom as well as at home, at any time or place, solving some of the problems mentioned above.

QR codes applied to a music score can be an effective option. Currently there are no studies related to the use of QR codes applied to instrumental practice at this educational level. Therefore, this paper will help to fill the gap. For some authors (Hwang, Wu, Tseng, et al., 2011), QR codes may be an ideal way to provide immediate help to students, because it is only requires use of a smartphone with QR code reader software, which, as mentioned above, is available for free on the Internet.

Regarding the musical part in this research, although technique and expression are ultimately related, the purpose of this study is to work solely on technical aspects (such as the study of musical scales, melodic and harmonic intervals, distances between both hands when playing the instrument, arpeggios, etc.). The work on expressive aspects is relegated to a second phase, once the fundamental technical elements are controlled. In this kind of work, QR codes may be very helpful because they offer the students a visual model adapted to their needs (recorded videos at different playing speeds and a visual angle similar to the one the student has when playing the instrument).

Design of the study

In this study, we used a mixed, transversal research method. Both qualitative and quantitative methods have been used based on the coding of the grades obtained by the students participating in this project, measuring the variables involved only once. An analysis of the obtained results was carried out, considering both the resources used as well as their influence according to the students’ gender.

To gain understanding of the students’ instrumental levels, at the beginning of the school year they completed a questionnaire stating/detailing whether they had studied music outside school, such as in a music school or conservatory. None of them had. In addition, students took two musical instrument playing tests before the research whose results evidenced a similar level of skills on the instruments played in the classroom. There were two exceptions: some students were excluded from the study because either they showed very significant limitations in their instrumental level or they showed an intuition and an instrumental level above the average without ‘apparent reason’. The latter decided not to participate in the research, a choice that was respected by the teacher/researcher. Thus, we ensured that the different skill levels of playing a musical instrument did not affect the results of the research.

The 112 participants in this study were divided into two groups as follows: Group 1, who worked with scores that had printed QR codes; and Group 2, who worked with scores in their textbooks and the accompaniment included in the book’s CD. We must emphasise the fact that the two groups count on the same information but use different tools and formats.

Instruments

Printed musical material

Two sets of printed material were used in this study: scores that were part of a textbook and scores with QR codes that were edited so that the student could study with them separate from the textbook. The scores from the textbook were redesigned and adapted to the needs and abilities of the students using the textbook and CD. Students in Group 1 used printed scores with incorporated QR codes. These QR codes were printed on top of every musical excerpt, and they had a support video linked to them, which visually helped the students to recognize the availability of digital material linked to every musical excerpt. A QR code was printed under the title so the student could look up the original composition and have the main composition elements (style, structure, melody and accompaniment, etc.) as a reference. By the end of the score and in its right margin, a QR code was printed with a video recording of the interpretation of the song by students on a higher level who already had played this composition. This video supposed an extra motivation for the student group that just started to play these musical pieces with the instrument. In Figure 1 we can see a score excerpt with QR codes.

Figure 1.

(a) and (b). An example of music score sheet with QR codes used in the research.

Digital resources

The digital resources used in this project consist of YouTube videos with interpretations of all musical excerpts that appear in every score that the students should perform during the study. In these videos, the teacher plays every excerpt so that the student can imitate aspects like hand position, speed and notes involved in the passage.

Video recordings

Among the tools for data collection, we used videos with students’ recordings. These recordings were made with a Panasonic HD handheld camcorder. For sound, we used a Røde condenser microphone. The video camera was placed on one side of the classroom and behind the students, ensuring a good view of their performances (and good sound quality) so that the students did not feel intimidated at any time by the ‘visual’ presence of the video camera.

Control score

The score used for control (see Figure 3) is a normal musical score edited to make a perfect tracking of mistakes made by students in the music performance videos. In the upper left side of the score, an identifier and the student number was included. Small boxes were placed under every measure to annotate the mistakes made by students.

The procedure

The research took place during a whole month, divided into 12 work sessions, three each week. This is the number of sessions that a music class has at this educational level. Group 1 students studied the musical excerpts using their smartphone in all sessions, reading QR codes distributed alongside the musical score. Students from Group 1 disposed of headphones to avoid being disturbed by the ‘noise’ produced by the devices and to concentrate on their practice. Group 2 followed the same training plan but studied with their textbooks and CDs as support materials. It is important to highlight the fact that Group 1 and Group 2 students were divided according to the purpose of the educational resource used, but actually these students total the four groups of students from year 11 who studied music in this academic year. In that way, groups A and B formed Group 1, and groups C and D formed Group 2, which made it easier for all students to have the musical instruments to practice with according to the times that are specified in Table 1.

Table 1.

Distribution of the work sessions performed by students according to whether they are using QR codes or traditional scores and CD.

		1 Month Execution Period
		Process		Length
		QR Codes^a (Group 1)	Textbook plus CD^b (Group 2)
Week 1	Session 1	Download QR code readers. Students can make scanning test of scores.		40’
	Session 2	Listen to the original composition (QR code under the title) and to the teacher explanation for the most meaningful issues.	Listen to the original composition (CD audio) and teacher explanation for the most meaningful issues.	20’
	Session 3	Setting up part A of the song^c	Setting up part A of the song^d	15’
Week 2	Session 4	Setting up part B of the song	Setting up part B of the song	15’
	Session 5	Setting up part C of the song	Setting up part C of the song	15’
	Session 6	Rehearsal Part A^e	Rehearsal Part A	10’
Week 3	Session 7	Rehearsal Part B	Rehearsal Part B	10’
	Session 8	Rehearsal Part C	Rehearsal Part C	10’
	Session 9	Rehearsal A-B-A	Rehearsal A-B-A	20’
Week 4	Session 10	Rehearsal A-B-A-C	Rehearsal A-B-A-C	25’
	Session 11	Instrumental test (first part)	Instrumental test	60’
	Session 12	Discussion about results (second part)	Instrumental test	20’

CD: compact disc; QR: quick response.

Students using smartphones with QR code readers to practice.

Students using textbooks and CDs for practice.

Students practicing in class during sessions 3, 4 and 5 with smartphones reading QR codes from scores.

Students listening to the CD in sessions 3, 4 and 5 as support to the initial setup of the main sections of the instrumental piece.

First rehearsal by sections of every part of the score (sessions 6–8) and rehearsal to connect sessions (9 and 10) for both groups.

Excluding session 1 (smartphone preparation and practice scanning QR codes for Group 1), in sessions 2–10, students worked during a specific time for each session in the setting up of the piece. Once the rehearsals were finished, in sessions 11 and 12, students from both groups were video-recorded with the purpose of analysing the mistakes made in their performances.

To assess the students’ different interpretations, we considered just the pitch element, as there are only two simple rhythmic designs throughout the song, maintaining the first as an ostinato (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Melodic designs that the students had to practice.

Therefore, the difficulty of interpretation focuses on the pitch, which reflects the different distances of hands in the alto xylophone, which is the goal of this task. To track the performing mistakes per student, we used videos recording each studying while playing. A control score was where we noted the pitch errors made in each bar. To track the number of mistakes made by each student, we visualised the recorded interpretation, pausing each bar to register mistakes in the control score using a circle around each wrong note and writing down the number of mistakes below each bar in the corresponding grid (Figure 3). At the end of each score we wrote down the number of mistakes made by each student.

Figure 3.

Example of control score for the tracking of interpretation errors.

To calculate the performance of each student, we must clarify that the score contains 328 notes. Taking this into account, the value of each error per musical note is 0.03048, obtained by dividing 10 by the total number of notes. We want to highlight that we have assessed a range of score from 0 to 10 (marking criteria used in Spanish schools), with 10 being the highest score. Therefore, the students’ grade is calculated using the following formula: Score = 10 − (number of errors × 0.03048). In this way, a student that makes, for example, 18 mistakes in his performance would take a mark of 9.45 out of a maximum of 10 points. However, the formula (agreements/(agreements + disagreements)) × 100 could also be used to calculate the percentage of right answers per student.

The monitoring and correction of mistakes in musical interpretation were carried out by the two teachers in charge of this research. Each researcher independently reviewed the videos and noted down the errors in the control scores. We practically got the same results, with a difference of five mistakes out of 520 corrected mistakes. Further, we asked an external music specialist to review some recordings and analyze the results of the first 45 recorded videos (40% of the sample). This specialist found a high degree of agreement among the three researchers (this consistency among researchers can be found in the Results section).

Statistical techniques to be employed

Basic descriptive analysis is given for the quantitative variable to obtain the average and typical deviation. For the qualitative variables, the number of cases present in each category and the corresponding percentage has been obtained. To compare between the groups, the Chi-squared test has been used. To study inter-rater reliability, the Kappa reliability index is calculated. The normality has been tested with the Shapiro-Wilk (n < 50) and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov (n > 50) tests, and the homogeneity of variances with the Levene test.

As for the obtained results, they were verified using an analysis of variance for a two-factor design with fixed effects to evaluate if any of these factors (method or sex) and their interaction influenced the result obtained. The differences that are statistically considered significant are those whose p < 0.05.

Results

The final sample of the study is a gender-integrated one, with 112 participants (53.6% are boys and 46.4% are girls). In agreement with the allocation of groups depending on the learning resource used, 56 students used the Textbook plus CD and the other 56 used QR codes. No statistically significant differences were observed between the groups of students using QR codes (χ2(1) = 0.574, p = 0.449) considering the gender variable. This result confirms that, despite the non-random method used in assigning groups, there is no bias with the gender variable.

To study inter-rater reliability, the Kappa reliability index was calculated, with the following results: the Kappa index reached by the researchers was 0.995 (p < 0.001), indicating a high degree of agreement. For the music specialist collaborating as an external researcher, the Kappa index reached with the teacher/researcher was 0.993 (p < 0.001), and was 0.998 (p < 0.001) with the co-author researcher, indicating in both cases a high degree of agreement.

The students who used Textbook plus CD were made up of a group of 56 pupils, whose scores were distributed normally (p > 0.05), with an average grade of 4.33 (SD = 0.9) obtained. For gender, the average score obtained by the male students (n = 32) that used Textbook plus CD was 4.27 (SD = 0.94) and 4.41 (SD = 0.85) for the female students. In both groups, the obtained scores were distributed in a normal way (p > 0.05).

The students that used QR codes were made up of a group of 56 pupils that obtained an average score of 6.03 (SD = 1.02), scores that were distributed in a normal way (p > 0.05). The average score obtained in the group of boys (n = 28) that used this resource was 5.88 (SD = 1.08) and in the group of girls (n = 28) was 6.19 (SD = 0.95). In both groups, the scores were distributed in a normal way (p > 0.05).

Finally, as it can be seen in Table 2, for the variable score obtained by the students, the analysis of variance test showed that the resource had a significant effect, F(1,108) = 85.57; p < 0.001.

Table 2.

Analysis-of-variance effects double test.

Variable	Effect
	Method	Sex	Method × Sex
	p (η2)	p (η2)	p (η2)
Result^a	<0.001** (0.442)	0.213 (0.014)	0.629 (0.014)

Assumed homogeneity: Levene test F(3,108) = 0.682, p = 0.565.

p < 0.05.

The partial η² was 0.442, which means that 44.2% of the variance in the variable score obtained is related to the learning resource used. On the other hand, for the group of girls, the score increased progressively more between those who employed Textbook plus CD and those who used QR codes.

The same happened for the group of boys, although to a lesser extent (the differences between the groups were not statistically significant, p > 0.05), and therefore there was no significant effect related to gender F(1,108) = 1.57; p = 0.213. Nor was there a significant effect on the interaction of method and gender F(1,108) = 0.235; p = 0.629, so the impact that the resources have on the students’ results obtained remains independent of their gender.

Conclusions and limitations

The results of this study have shown that the use of QR codes associated with videos for musical instrumental practice is an ideal way of offering an immediate response to students, not only inside but also outside the classroom. Studies like Kester, Kirschner, and van Merriënboer (2004) demonstrate improved learning when relevant information is available immediately. In line with these authors, in this article we assume that with the QR codes in the scores and the use of mobile devices, students do not have to wait for the following lesson, two or three days later, to clarify their doubts. But it is important to highlight the fact that the videos associated with these QR codes are the ones that contain their authentic learning potential, because they show in a detailed way how to interpret every musical fragment of the score.

However, we must be cautious not only with the results obtained in this research, but also with the enthusiasm and motivation that the students experienced using their mobile phones as a practice tool during the project. Some authors emphasize that student motivation is variable and is conditioned by many diverse elements, such as the use of a new method (Clark and Salomon, 1985), arguing that the means must be based on the tasks, curricular content and the learning situation.

Studies such as Hsi (2003) show that the use of portable devices improves and transforms the user experience. This is evident in this study, where portable devices were useful for students to have immediate information using QR codes associated with online videos, which improved their learning experience in the instrumental field. Also, the use of mobile devices in the classroom for scanning these QR codes helped students to have more independence in class, although it would be interesting to evaluate or measure students’ independence in future research studies, as it is a limitation of this one.

From the teacher’s point of view, we wonder if this project is transferable to other educational contexts or could be developed by other teachers. The answer is yes, on the condition that the required disposition, motivation and time investment is given by teachers interested in developing a similar project. The creation of QR codes is something that can be learned easily. However, the creation of personalized and pedagogically designed videos for a specific educational context may be considered by some teachers as a limitation, because the videos should be designed to respond to a concrete teaching methodology, be edited with an acceptable quality of image and sound, and uploaded to platforms like YouTube or similar. Finally, QR codes of all videos should be created to include them in the scores. This may be the biggest obstacle for a teacher, despite the benefits that the use of such videos can entail, as highlighted by studies such as those by Palazón-Herrera and Giráldez (2014). In addition to the video filming, the teacher wanting personalised learning for his pupils would have to create all the musical arrangements needed and the corresponding scores. This kind of project requires considerable time investment by the teacher, a dedication that sometimes we are not willing to assume. On the other hand, in secondary education, at least in Spain, the figure of the teacher/researcher is very common because it is almost impossible to work with an external teacher who visits the classroom and carries out the research. Although this aspect could be considered a limitation within this study, the authors consider that it offers a unique opportunity to contribute new knowledge to the field of the study of a musical instrument in secondary education – an area in which there are no similar research studies.

On the other hand, a music score sheet embedded with QR codes has favoured a more effective methodology for musical instrument practice. Also, the students have shown more independence in the classroom in terms of the support they often need from the teacher, because the videos provided to the students are an exact copy of the instrumental examples that the teacher carries out in the classroom. However, we must recognize as a limitation of this study something that could be carried out in future studies: evaluating the level of independence acquired by students using QR codes when compared to students using a more traditional educational resource. Likewise, the teacher has more time to resolve problems and mistakes the students may have, converting the classroom into an authentic ‘laboratory’ to practise music, dedicating lesser time to theoretical explanations and being able to experiment much more with the instrument at an individual level and as a group.

Lastly, this methodological change also affects the teacher as the dynamics of ‘teacher placed in front of the classroom explaining instrumental techniques to 30 students per classroom’ becomes, thanks to mobile phones and other devices, a dynamic of ‘30 students that have their own private tutor at home’. Papers such as those by Mattis (2015) and Mason, Shuman, and Cook (2013) have already highlighted the effectiveness of a flipped classroom methodology over a more traditional one, examining variables such as study time. On the other hand, it should be emphasized that studies such as those by DeSantis, van Curen, Putsch, et al. (2015) found no differences in students’ learning outcomes based on the methodology used (flipped classroom vs. traditional lesson). However, this research mainly focused on the design of resources for students’ musical instruments playing, so the effects methodology should be researched in future studies.

This research has shown how the use of music scores with QR codes associated with videos could improve time management in the classroom and provoke a positive change in the teacher’s role. This positive change is possible as he or she could devote more time to playing music instead of repeating what has already been explained, although these facets should be considered in future research studies. Nevertheless, we can affirm that there has been an improvement in the academic results for those students that have used scores with QR codes associated with videos showing how to play the different musical fragments (compared with more traditional devices, as the CD). Therefore, we consider these resources as acceptable for musical instrument practice.

Footnotes

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

ORCID iD

José Palazón .

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