Norm-disruptive learning and music teacher competency development: A thematic synthesis

Abstract

With an aim to inform pedagogical processes for the development of more diverse and equitable music teaching practice, we sought to uncover the nature of norm-disruptive learning for music teachers. We defined “norm-disruptive learning” as any facet of music teacher development that problematizes and expands beyond previously known philosophies, pedagogies, and repertoires. A thematic synthesis methodology was used to consolidate qualitative research that explored characteristics of norm-disruptive experiences and the competencies music teachers developed. A total of 15 sources met inclusion criteria. Findings are organized into nine analytic themes and three meta-analytic themes which encompass the nature of norm-disrupting learning and related emerging competencies. We found that norm-disruptive experiences seem most likely to influence music teacher competency development when internal and external connections are made, which can occur through experiencing with thinking and camaraderie; when dissonant in nature, but also balanced with affirmative experiences; and when of substantial duration and vividness. Norm-disruptive experience with these characteristics can deepen understanding of self and diverse others, develop appreciation for difference, expand musical and pedagogical abilities, and spark motivation to continue learning or to implement new abilities.

Keywords

Culturally responsive inclusive music education music teacher education multicultural music norm-disruptive learning

Many music students experience a music education that exists within a single cultural paradigm. While peripheral and additive encounters with culturally different musics and music makers may occur, it is common for music students to unintentionally assimilate to one musical tradition and develop a subconscious bias that this is the “only” or “most correct” way to make, teach, and learn music (Bennett, 2013). Some of these individuals grow up to become music teachers who naturally perpetuate the often-cherished music traditions and cultural paradigm of their youth (Albert, 2016; Bennett, 2021; Powell, 2019; Rich, 2004).

Beyond music education, monocultural socialization has been common in many societies, in which adults grow up to have access only to their own cultural worldview (Bennett, 2013). However, in many pluralistic societies today, adults are more likely to have encounters that challenge their cultural views. Developing critical awareness of one’s own culture can lead to a more “ethnorelative” way of being in the world, defined by Bennett as the ability to accept, adapt, or integrate cultural difference into or alongside one’s own worldview. For many music teachers around the world, particularly those who work in pluralistic societies, ethnorelativism is important as it may translate in part to a more equitable, culturally responsive (Abril, 2009; Shaw, 2015), and culturally diverse (Bennett Walling, 2020; Howard et al., 2014) music education from which many students can benefit.

In school music programs today, students may need, desire, and/or benefit from a music education beyond a formal, Eurocentric, and/or monocultural experience. Indeed, many likely come to learning with diverse (musical) backgrounds and preferences. Further, music students may find relatable content and processes inviting and enjoyable. For example, some students in New York schools have reported modern band as more congruent and beneficial—for example, in building musical confidence and creativity—than traditional courses (Clauhs & Cremata, 2020). Researchers have also documented how students can develop interpersonal and creative skills when empowered with choice and informal learning avenues, in ways likely not possible within formal, teacher-centered programs (Campbell et al., 2019; Debrot, 2017; Green, 2008).

Students can benefit from the opportunity to learn about musics and cultures beyond their current orientations. For example, students have demonstrated greater appreciation and/or curiosity for unfamiliar (musical) cultures when learning music with culture bearers (Gackle & Fung, 2009) and through antiracism (Bradley, 2008) or sociocultural (Abril, 2003) pedagogies. Exposure to unfamiliar music may awaken a previously “dormant dimension” (Palmer, 1998) within some students, leading them down new musical avenues not possible without the initial exposure (Abril, 2009; Bennett, 2021). As the needs and interests of students today continue to shift, music students can benefit from music teachers that respond to such shifts and to their uniqueness, with awareness of emerging social and musical climates. Across various communities and classrooms, responsiveness will mean a vast array of musical and pedagogical possibilities—those that may be uncovered by music teachers who are equipped to evolve rather than to teach only as they were taught.

In response to cultural and musical diversity, music teacher education and formal music teaching continue to evolve to honor diverse students’ interests, needs, and musical realities (Addo, 2009; Burnard et al., 2008; Cain, 2015; Hess, 2013; Shaw, 2015; Wright & Kanellopoulos, 2010). While formal Eurocentric music traditions remain the paradigm in many programs around the world, this is changing; in fact, this tradition is no longer emphasized in some university music programs (Westerlund, 2006; Williams & Randles, 2017). Within the last decade, there have been meaningful shifts toward different paradigms in music education. We see this through the growth of the Association for Popular Music Education (APME)¹ as well as the publication of materials such as the Oxford Handbook of Social Justice (Benedict et al., 2015).

Evolving music teacher education may expose music teachers to culturally diverse content, ideas, and music makers; however, this may not be enough to disrupt predispositions. For example, some teacher education research suggests that student teaching abroad, with a disparate student population, may not lead to improvements in global mindedness and intercultural competency (Alfaro, 2008). Research in music teacher education has also reported how some ethnocentric and biased views are maintained throughout field work with diverse students (Nichols & Sullivan, 2016; VanDeusen, 2017). Further, some music teachers who have moderate to extensive music training or experience beyond Western art and Eurocentric models have reportedly struggled to integrate knowledge of diverse music traditions into formal teaching (Abril, 2009; Bennett Walling, 2020).

There is a need for deeper inquiry into the characteristics of learning most likely to help music teachers develop broader and more inclusive musicianship and teaching practices. With many music teacher education programs shifting beyond the traditional Eurocentric paradigm, how are such shifts influencing music teacher pedagogies? Can we assume that music teachers—most of whom grew up learning within one cultural paradigm—will be open and adjust to new and diverse possibilities in music education? Many adult learning theories have illuminated how such development is not a simple matter (Baxter Magolda, 2009; Kegan, 1994; Mezirow, 2000).

Research purpose

We sought to uncover the nature and influence of norm-disruptive learning (defined below) on the teaching practice of preprofessional and professional music teachers through the synthesis of extant, quality research in this area. More specifically, our aim was to synthesize salient characteristics and related competencies music teachers developed during and after norm-disruptive learning experiences for future theorizing and research in this area.

Operational definitions

For the purpose of this review, we defined “music teachers” as those learning how to teach music or with experience teaching music in formal settings—that is, school music or non-profit music programs—with explicit or probable backgrounds in the Eurocentric music tradition. “Formal Eurocentric music tradition,” while somewhat diverse itself, encompasses pedagogies that derive from white, European music and people, and the preservation of a related canon transmitted through western-standard notation. We defined “norm-disruptive learning” as any facet of music teacher development that problematizes and expands beyond previously known philosophies, pedagogies, and repertoires. Here “norms” (i.e. patterns, standards, models) likely stem from the formal Eurocentric music tradition; “disruption” indicates something different, diverse, or expansive beyond it; and “learning” regards the acquisition of new competency/competencies. Norm-disruptive learning may be multicultural, intercultural, cross-cultural,² informal, or hybrid and may partially or completely expose music educators to culturally different, more expansive possibilities in music teaching and learning. “Culture” can be broadly understood as the beliefs, values, and customs of a social group. Specific to music, “competency” development regards new musical knowledge, skills, and capacities.

Method

We conducted a thematic synthesis, a form of systematic review developed by Thomas and Harden (2008) in which researchers extract and distil data across numerous studies. While individual qualitative studies are context-dependent and not considered generalizable, the process of systematically bringing together a body of qualitative research can enable the consideration of higher-order thematic analysis (Thomas & Harden, 2008). We focused on qualitative research as rich and thick accounts of experiences were needed to identify salient learning characteristics and related emergent competencies. Regarding researcher positionality, we bring collective experience in qualitative research and systematic review to this synthesis. Our systematic efforts to remain grounded in the data—particularly in the first two stages of analysis—and the various stages of "checks and balances” we utilized (Bearman & Dawson, 2013) contribute to what we feel was a thoughtful and rigorous research process.

Search strategy

After several scoping searches,³ we settled on the following keyword search combinations: music teacher(s) or music educator(s) and (1) diverse, (2) multicultural, (3) intercultural, (4) cross-cultural, (5) hybrid, (6) urban, or (7) informal. The first author conducted searches across five databases (Academic Search Premier, ERIC, PsycINFO, Sage Publications, and ProQuest Dissertations and Theses) using 14 unique keyword search combinations, for a total of 70 searches.

Eligibility criteria

We screened potential research for inclusion based on the following eligibility criteria:

Criterion 1: Publication

We only considered sources most likely to have been conducted with a high degree of rigor. Thus, we included sources in peer-reviewed journals and dissertations and excluded anecdotal and practitioner ones. Further, included literature was limited to qualitative research or studies with qualitative data and must have been published in English. Finally, included studies needed to have a quality assessment score greater than 12 on a slightly modified Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) qualitative instrument, described below (CASP, 2018).

Criterion 2: Participants

Study participants were music teachers working in or toward work in formal educational settings. Research was limited to participants with explicit or probable backgrounds within the Eurocentric music paradigm.⁴ Studies that did not explicitly detail participant backgrounds must have information that indicated a likelihood of Eurocentric norms in formal music education.

Criterion 3: Experience

The experience had to involve norm-disruptive (as defined previously) teacher education or professional development related to music teaching and learning. We looked for experiences explicitly intended to expose music teachers to different, diverse, or expansive possibilities. Furthermore, the experience needed to be central to the study purpose and research question(s).

Criterion 4: Outcome

Included sources must have described how norm-disruptive experiences influenced the music teacher(s) themselves.

Screening procedure

A PRISMA flowchart outlining study methodology can be found in Figure 1 (adapted from Moher et al., 2009). The database searches identified 1,053 sources for evaluation based on the eligibility criteria. Of those, 420 were duplicates. Screening of the remaining 633 sources was conducted in two stages. First, only titles and abstracts were read to exclude sources that did not meet all four criteria, which resulted in the exclusion of 576 sources. Examples of excluded sources included education history books, as well as philosophy or practitioner articles (criteria 1); those focused on students, communities, or administrators and not music teachers (criteria 2); and those with themes not related to the processes and outcomes of norm-disruptive learning, such as sources regarding occupational identity development or the implementation of culturally-responsive pedagogies (criteria 3 and 4).

Figure 1.

PRISMA flowchart outlining the search and screening process.

In the second stage we screened the full text of the remaining 57 sources. Forty-four additional sources were excluded. While reasons varied, common examples include those that did not meet criteria 1 as they lacked rigor in methodology (e.g. had qualitative data but minimal to no discussion of data collection and analyses procedures) or were anecdotal or personal accounts of development, not research studies. Other examples of excluded sources included those that focused on teacher education that was not norm-disruptive (criteria 3) and studies that examined too broad of a sample, such as music teachers and musicians or students (criteria 2).

Next, citation chaining of the resulting 13 documents and further hand searching yielded four more studies that met eligibility criteria. Finally, we conducted a quality assessment evaluation on the 17 sources using a slightly modified CASP qualitative instrument⁵ (CASP, 2018). This checklist considers the clarity and appropriateness of research design and reporting, as well as ethical issues, analysis rigor, and overall value. From a scale of 0 to 20 we set 12 as a minimum score to indicate an adequate level of quality. Two of the 17 documents received scores below 12 and were excluded, resulting in a final dataset of 15 sources.

Data extraction and analysis

Analytic transparency is important when reporting processes of “judgment-based” qualitative synthesis; this helps readers make their own critical assessment of findings (Bearman & Dawson, 2013). We took a constructivist approach to analysis, which aligns with the epistemological foundations of the dataset. Epistemologically, researchers with a constructivist orientation acknowledge their influence on what ultimately counts as knowledge and how knowledge claims are justified (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Indeed, our backgrounds shaped data interpretations, just as researchers in the dataset shaped data interpretations in their own contexts.

In an effort to reduce bias (Brown et al., 2012), we (the two authors) worked as a team, bringing together our perspectives, negotiating disagreements, and coming to a consensus on interpretive decisions (Bearman & Dawson, 2013) through regular Zoom and in-person meetings. We extracted the following information from each source: population demographics, methodology, theoretical framework, program/experience elements, and main findings. Next, we followed the three stages of thematic synthesis with attention to experience characteristics and outcomes: line-by-line coding of the sources; organization of initial codes into re-stated focused codes to construct descriptive themes, and development of analytic themes (Thomas & Harden, 2008). The first author used Atlas.ti for all stages of coding; the second author participated in stages 2 and 3 and used Microsoft Word.

The first author completed the first stage of coding, with every sentence that was a verbatim finding (i.e. regarding the study at hand and not an embedded discussion) receiving at least one code. Gradually, codes were organized and grouped for similarity, resulting in 23 codes and eight themes.

In the next stage, which occurred through bimonthly meetings over 3 months, the two authors discussed and clarified codes, creating a shared codebook of operational definitions for each code. Both authors then independently re-coded five of the sources for comparison and discussion, which led to revision and clarification of the codebook. Next, the first author re-engaged in a second round of coding each source with the updated codebook, and discussed any uncertainties with the second author in a series of follow-up meetings. Ultimately, 24 codes and 6 descriptive themes were finalized.

Regarding the final stage of thematic synthesis, Thomas and Harden (2008) emphasize that the analytic stage is the most difficult and potentially controversial as it is no longer close to the data, and is dependent on the judgment and perceptions of the reviewers. Thus, we began with each author working independently, sketching theoretical frameworks to depict higher-order understandings. A final critical discussion resulted in nine analytic themes that depicted the characteristics of norm-disruptive experiences with potential to transform music teachers and their practices. We sought what Thomas and Harden called “conceptual saturation” of themes so as to subjectively illuminate and interpret, rather than objectively uncover.

Results and findings

Included sources

Supplemental Table 1 summarizes the included studies. Types of norm-disruptive learning experiences included: immersive intercultural exchanges, 1 to 3 weeks in length (n = 7); university courses on or partially on campus (n = 4); volunteer programs in juvenile detention centers (n = 2); a world music workshop (n = 1); and a professional development community (PDC; n = 1). With the exception of three studies, research focused on university music education majors at the undergraduate and/or graduate level. Additionally, it is important to note that only seven of the studies investigated teacher change post-experience; the majority focused on the experience itself and not the transfer of skills or ideas afterwards.

Quality assessment

Quality assessment scores ranged from 12 to 20 (See Supplemental Table 2). Studies with lower scores often lacked best practice considerations for conducting qualitative research, such as not stating researcher positionality or teacher-researchers who did not denote consideration for how their relationship with study participants (i.e. pre-existing teacher/student relationships) may have impacted findings. Further, some studies appeared to lack data saturation, with many also lacking theoretical frameworks that could have provided meaningful lenses for deeper understanding. In a few studies, data analysis processes were deemed insufficiently described.

Findings

We organized findings into nine analytic themes, each which was saturated or near-saturated (i.e. with all or most studies featuring this theme): (1) Experiencing and Thinking, (2) Camaraderie, (3) Depth, (4) Dissonance, (5) Affirmation, (6) Illumination of Self and Others, (7) Valuing Difference, (8) Expanded Ability and Assurance, and (9) Motivation. These themes were ultimately organized under three meta-analytic themes (see Supplemental Figure 2) which encompass the nature of norm-disruptive learning and related emerging competencies: (1) Connection, (2) Perseverance, and (3) Expansion. “Connection” regards experiential links made while learning; “Perseverance” involves dissonance in learning and persistence through challenges and growth; and “Expansion” concerns growth and attaining new competencies. These themes are in no specific sequence, and the order does not relate to importance or frequency of occurrence. We also note that themes are not limited to norm-disruptive experiences and aspects could be present in normative experiences as well. Findings include conceptual definitions and data from the descriptive themes, illustrated by supporting direct quotes.

Connection

When a music teacher makes a “connection,” an internal and/or external network is created, which paves the way for new understandings of music, self, and/or others to emerge.

Experiencing and thinking

To varying degrees, each study reported norm-disruptive experiences that were both experiential and reflective nature.⁶ As considered in a music pedagogy course, Finney and Philpott (2010) detail the importance of both “excavating” (thinking through “reflexive practice”) and “living” (doing) (p. 11). Regarding “experiencing,” all studies featured planned activities that were experiential and action-based, in which music teachers practiced what they were learning, either in the institution or beyond. All but three featured planned musicking, from singing and playing instruments to musical games and dancing. Twelve studies also featured planned teaching or leadership activities (e.g. arranging and teaching an a cappella pop song for the first time). Nine studies featured other kinds of experiential activities, such as visits to neighborhoods and lesson planning with mentor teachers. Most studies described experiences that encompassed a wide variety of practical activities.

Concerning “thinking,” each study reported planned activities in which participants discussed what was being learned through interviews, group discussions, and/or written assignments; these seemed to influence deeper understandings. In the majority of experiences, participants were exposed to ways of thinking about music and culture that extended beyond ethnocentric norms, which often led them to think more critically. One music teacher, engaging in service learning in a juvenile detention center (JDC), offered, “the JDC experience helped me to think about things differently, how [to] teach music not just through teaching instruments, but talking about things, relating it to everyday life” (Nichols & Sullivan, 2016, p. 166). In interviews, participants often engaged in reflective processes centered on self-awareness. At the end of one music teacher’s time on exchange in Sweden, they shared, “[The course has] caused me to really reflect on my philosophy of music education, you know: do I think it needs to be changed? Do I think things need to be added?” (Burton et al., 2013, p. 100).

Certain facets of experiential and action-based learning appeared to ignite “mindful doing” and “excavation.” For example, in regard to a 1-week cultural immersion field experience to Dearborn—a town in Michigan with a large Muslim and Arab population—some music teachers found initial pre-exchange readings about Islam to have little influence; however, meeting and observing Muslim and Arab scholars and students firsthand had a larger influence. One shared, “I learned zero from the readings. I don’t remember any of it. But [the guest lecturer] talked and I was like, ‘Ok. I’m kind of getting it.’ And then these kids. It’s like, ‘Ok. Now I’m understanding it’.” (VanDeusen, 2017, p. 127).

Camaraderie

Experiences with camaraderie—those that are shared and based on trust—were common and appeared to help expand music teachers’ competencies. These often involved pairs or groups of music teachers working together and supporting each other. In fact, only three studies did not explicitly note collaborative exchange between music teachers, which speaks to the potential importance of norm-disruption as a shared experience, not something one undergoes alone. Although norm-disruptive learning is not inherently shared (indeed it could theoretically be undergone alone), most of the studies in this synthesis featured this phenomenon.

Participants in 12 studies reported time with others as meaningful. Team teaching was described in a few studies (Addo, 2009; Nichols & Sullivan, 2016; Westerlund et al., 2015), an exercise some teachers initially found dissonant, but eventually embraced. On an exchange in Cambodia, “many student teachers began to view the group work and the access to their fellow students’ competencies. . .as a benefit” (Westerlund et al., 2015). Some meaningful connections were with colleagues in the same program, and others with those of another country or culture. Kastner observed, “The teachers appreciated the connections formed with the other teachers in the PLC, which were made more easily because of their similar backgrounds and common teaching methodology.” Alternatively, on an exchange between Swedish and U.S. students, Burton et al. (2013) said, “students from the United States mentioned that what separated this course from typical exchange courses was the fact that students could spend time being ‘really one on one. . .communicating, just us together’” (p. 98).

Camaraderie was also experienced between music teachers and students and/or music teachers and local people. In a JDC experience with fellow student teachers and students, a teacher reflected: “The understanding that we were collaborating. That moment when, it’s so cheesy but, the moment where it’s like, ‘This could be a good world if we could all just do things together and collaborate’” (Nichols & Sullivan, 2016, p. 165). Another music teacher on exchange in South Africa reflected on how camaraderie with locals led to changes in her pedagogical practice:

I don’t think it would have had the same impact. It certainly would have had an impact still but being in the villages with the families, sharing those experiences with them, that was humbling and that’s probably what brought me to bring these changes in my classroom. (Bennett Walling, 2020, p. 10)

It seems camaraderie and a feeling of closeness to others can be experienced through many avenues—they can both reinforce learning and also contribute to deeper cultural understandings and appreciation for difference.

Depth

Not surprisingly, music teacher development and the number of connections made appear related to the depth of the experience. Deep experiences are those that occur over a substantial duration of time or frequency and/or that feature immersive exposure to a music or culture (i.e. vividness). All but one study outlined experiences of substantial duration. One 2-hour workshop appeared to influence participants minimally or not at all (Joseph & Hartwig, 2015), whereas several overseas exchanges, ranging from 10 days to 3 weeks resulted in varied meaningful outcomes. Experiences of longer duration seem to allow music teachers time to shift from self-consciousness to deeper connections with diverse others. For example, in the case of a 3-week exchange in Cambodia, participants initially worked through concerns about pedagogy, but eventually focused on relating to the Cambodian children (Westerlund et al., 2015).

Immersive intercultural exchanges featured opportunities for participants to interact with diverse students and community members in ways not possible in a more institutional course. In a study on Singapore teacher education courses, students experienced musics in their cultural contexts and attended concerts (Cain, 2015). One professor discussed how some students were compelled to join his gamelan ensemble after watching them perform. Alternatively, teaching in juvenile detention centers and in local UK and US schools provided teachers opportunities to observe and practice teaching diverse student populations over the course of a semester. Most reported a clear change in how teachers understood diversity and diverse (often marginalized) others after such exchanges. Overall, the deeper (i.e. more immersive and/or frequent) an experience, the more teachers seemed likely to receive opportunities to develop and expand in knowledge, skills, and values (see section on “expansion”).

Perseverance

We found “perseverance” as another central aspect of norm-disruptive learning. This describes when a music teacher moves forward and persists through the challenges and dissonance experienced during norm-disruptive learning. To varying degrees, every study reported learning dissonance for music teachers. With this, most studies (all but three) reported affirmative components (“affirmation”) to learning. These may have played a role in overcoming or withstanding dissonance and/or may have supported learning more generally. Further, almost every study exemplified how depth may also help participants persevere.

Dissonance

Dissonant experiences, those described as challenging, difficult, and/or uncomfortable, were reported in all studies, particularly at the start of a course or exchange. Most studies reported varied and numerous instances of dissonance. Examples included initial nervousness working with new populations, frustration in singing a different language, fearing how others would perceive a change in pedagogy, and struggles to learn music aurally. One music teacher said toward the start of an informal music pedagogy course, “just why were we doing this? Couldn’t time be spent more productively?” (Finney & Philpott, 2010). Some participants recognized and accepted dissonant experiences in hindsight. For example, a music teacher in South Africa reflected, “It was sort of exhausting at first being in a different environment and experiencing everything for the first time every day, but it was so stimulating and I went back considering it a once in a life time opportunity” (Bennett Walling, 2020, p. 10). Further, witnessing inequity was a dissonant experience for music teachers in some studies.

Affirmation

Experiences which are affirmative may aid music teachers in their development by making stronger connections and/or overcoming initial dissonances. Affirmative experiences are here defined as those that confirm, support, and/or empower music teachers in norm-disruptive learning. A broad theme, examples include (a) texts, colleagues, or instructors who somehow validate the experience, (b) having a sense of “owned” learning, or (c) feeling joy in the process.

Seven studies noted conscious support by leaders when learning was challenging. For example, focus group interviews in a Swedish-American exchange program allowed participants the time and space to assess personal philosophies and methods in light of new insights (Burton et al., 2013). Additionally, in 10 studies, participants or researchers described experiences as positive, enjoyable, and/or fun. For example, one participant on exchange in Sweden stated he “really, really enjoyed staying with each other,” further offering, “I think I took so much more from the entire experience because I lived with you guys and not just stayed in a hotel” (p. 98).

Participant choice, or what Finney and Philpott (2010) called “self-directed” and “owned” learning (p. 11), may also be regarded as affirmative, as it brings a sense of familiarity, control, interest, and/or empowerment to the experience. Seven studies described experiences in which participants chose facets of what they were learning, such as choosing articles to read or world musics to focus on. For example, in a 3-week service-learning trip to Cambodia (Westerlund et al., 2015), student music teachers were free to choose their teaching materials and approaches. Ultimately, as participants were able to experience norm-disruptive learning consonantly in various ways, the developmental process was not entirely dissonant, which may have led to an openness for continued learning.

Expansion

During and at times after norm-disruptive experiences, all studies reported some kind of competency expansion. Here “expansion” regards change and attaining new competencies. In this model we offer that expansion is not an arrival point, but part of a process that often leads to further connections and perseverance. With the vast majority of studies in this synthesis featuring all five aforementioned analytic themes, we note that expansion likely occurs due to not one experience attribute (e.g. “camaraderie” or “experiencing and thinking”) but many.

Illumination of self and others

Common across all studies was the reported expansion of self-understanding and (in all but one) the understanding of diverse people and musics. The most salient change regarded meta-cognition, or meta-pedagogy, with participants reporting increased self-awareness of their process of teaching and/or views. For example, in an internationalized music education course, one student teacher remarked, “I will need to re-acclimate myself to youth culture. . .our society has changed pretty dramatically in the last couple of decades” (Addo, 2012, p. 318). A student teacher in an immersive exchange in Detroit, Michigan offered, “I also truly believe that children are all very different. . .I think that a dedicated, effective teacher should try to relate to the culture of the students—try to understand how that child enters your classroom. . .I had never considered this before” (Emmanuel, 2005, p. 55).

In all but two studies, music teachers came to a new or expanded understanding that music, students, and/or culture can be different than previously thought. Often, new understanding of what is meant by multiculturalism or culture was reported, and sometimes music teachers realized they have much in common with culturally different people. It appeared music teachers reached a level of higher-order thinking because learning consisted of both experiencing and thinking, often in settings beyond the institution. One teacher reflected on her time in an Aboriginal community in Australia:

The experience has helped me to realize, I suppose, the difficulties or the barriers that are faced when teaching people of cultures that differ to your own. . .it makes you realize that there’s more to music teaching and teaching I suppose and music in general than what you get taught within the books and even at your prac school. (Ballantyne et al., 2016, p. 172)

Valuing difference

Researchers frequently reported that music teachers came to appreciate diverse people and musics. Indeed, in 13 studies music teachers described diversity as exciting, interesting, and/or valuable. For example, on exchange in Cambodia (Westerlund et al., 2015), one music teacher expressed gratitude that traveling led to important exploration: “This was a trip not only to Cambodia, but also into a fascinating culture, humanity, respect, understanding and my inner self ” (p. 67). One teacher stated simply after an immersion internship in Detroit, “I think I walk away from here with a more consistent interest and awareness of other cultures” (Emmanuel, 2005, p. 57).

In nine studies, music teachers demonstrated the ability to interact with diverse individuals, stating this was of value and/or important. For example, Thompson (2015) reported his own journey in coming to recognize juvenile detainees’ cultural knowledge and creative abilities, eventually challenging the learners as he realized they could meet higher expectations. In this way, he cultivated respect and trust by merging culturally responsive approaches with his growing commitment to empower learners. A preservice music teacher in an immersive field experience reflected:

Just being around people that are different from you. . . I think it’s really important if you want to be empathetic towards certain people, you need to have experiences that allow you to be empathetic towards your students. So, if I’m ever teaching refugees or Arabs or Muslims or anyone like that, I feel like I have a lot more personal, lived experience to draw upon. I think that’s why this experience is important. (VanDeusen, 2017, p. 168).

Expanded ability and assurance

In most studies, music teachers demonstrated the ability to teach or make music in a diverse way, beyond ethnocentric norms. In 10 studies, participants were said to demonstrate an ability to teach beyond these norms, such as through the inclusion of world music traditions (Addo, 2012; Cain, 2015) and the adjustment of power dynamics in lessons (Nichols & Sullivan, 2016). New skills ranged from informal facilitation practices (Finney & Philpott, 2010; Kastner, 2012; Wright & Kanellopoulos, 2010) to creative freedom (Wright & Kanellopoulos, 2010) to culturally responsive practices that connected students to life beyond the classroom (Addo, 2012; Emmanuel, 2005; Thompson, 2015; VanDeusen, 2017). In the Cambodian exchange, student teachers learned—over time—to relax in lessons and develop flexibility when they could not hold onto their preconceived plans:

it’s beneficial to constantly question one’s methods, and to consider trying things in another way. . .Or to find a suitable compromise, combination or method for each situation. . .So that flexibility would become a natural part of being in the midst of a situation. I think it’s terribly important. . .that the method doesn’t lead you, but that you lead the method (Westerlund et al., 2015, p. 67).

In ten studies, participants demonstrated the ability to engage in music in a diverse way. For example, in the Singapore music teacher program (Cain, 2015), teachers reported the development of new musical skills playing in gamelan and Japanese ensembles; many reported incorporating this music in their teaching. Participants in 10 studies also voiced confidence in new or improved practices. After a weekend band camp with Aboriginal students, one student teacher stated, “I am naturally someone who doesn’t usually step up and take charge of things, but I challenged myself throughout the weekend and it strengthened my belief in being able to do so” (Ballantyne et al., 2016, p. 170).

Motivation

Norm-disruptive experiences have the potential to motivate music teachers to continue learning or implement new skills and knowledge. In 10 studies, participants reported the desire to teach in a diverse way. For example, after an African music workshop one participant said: “I would like to model and adapt some of the activities we did in the workshop in my classroom,” and another shared, “I cannot wait to incorporate it in a classroom, I learnt some great ideas” (Joseph & Hartwig, 2015, p. 7). In seven studies, teachers stated a desire and/or eagerness to learn more about diverse music and/or culture. A music teacher who participated in an exchange in Dearborn, Michigan shared,

So, I’m trying to figure out how to apply this to my college experience. I realize I have to purposefully go out of my way to find other cultures. I’m just trying to figure out ways to connect what we learned, to help people feel their culture is recognized. (VanDeusen, 2017, p. 169)

Discussion

Common and often saturated themes were found across studies, providing a preliminary theoretical framework that points to characteristics of norm-disruptive learning experiences that are likely to help music teachers develop broader and more inclusive musicianship and teaching practices. Here we present a framework that outlines the aforementioned themes, with ideas on how these may influence and connect (see Figure 2).

Figure 2.

A theoretical framework of norm-disrupting experiences.

These emergent analytic themes align with concepts in numerous college student and adult learning theories. For example, the theme “experiencing and thinking” aligns with the work of Dewey (1916), who emphasized that experience is extremely important in learning, as thinking alone is separated from body and not fully meaningful or realized. Findings that “dissonance,” “experiencing and thinking,” and “camradierie” can play a role in “expansion” connects to Mezirow’s (1997, 2000) Transformative Learning Theory, which describes the start of transformation⁷ as a “disorienting dilemma” and denotes critical thinking (part of “experiencing and thinking”) and discourse (an example of “camaraderie”) as impactful aids to transformation. Regarding often initial dilemmas and disorientation, Ballantyne et al. (2016) offer, “it has long been established that learning has the potential to occur when people experience dissonance or disequilibrium in the ways they understand the world” (p. 167). Indeed, it may likely be uncomfortable to grapple with the disruption of norms, but this can be a sign of forthcoming transformation.

Additionally, Sanford’s (1967) Challenge and Support Theory depicts the need for “supports” or “buffers” amidst challenging learning that may help learners be successful, which relates to “affirmation” (support) as important in norm-disruptive learning. With Sanford’s theory rooted in college student experiences and transitions, he described how challenges (“dissonance”) occur when students do not have the knowledge, skills, or attitude to cope (e.g. musically or interpersonally). The amount of challenge one can tolerate is a function of support (“affirmation”) available.

That experiences which last for longer durations (“depth”) may lead to expansion connects to Astin’s (1984) Theory of Involvement, a key underlying theory of college student development (Patton et al., 2016). Astin (1984) defined involvement as “the amount of physical and psychological energy that the student devotes to the academic experience” (p. 297). Energy can be quantitative (e.g. the amount of time devoted to an activity) and qualitative (e.g. the seriousness to which the activity is approached). Here we re-emphasize that music teachers in most studies in this synthesis were involved in thoughtful learning over a significant period of time.

Implications

This preliminary model has implications for music teacher education. Fundamentally, to increase the possibility that norm-disruptive learning will lead to expanded capacities, music teacher educators can ensure that these experiences connect music teachers in various ways and on various levels (e.g. to diverse environments, people, and activities); that it occurs over time; and includes various affirmations (i.e. support) to balance likely dissonances. Regarding the meta-theme “connection,” each study reported norm-disruptive learning included instances of experiencing and thinking. Specifically, there is evidence that guided reflection and critical thinking helped participants learn productively in the face of dissonances and ambiguities in new circumstances. Music teacher educators may strive to ensure that norm-disruptive lectures and units include opportunities for “doing” alongside “thinking” when possible (e.g. inviting culture bearers to lead activities or going on field trips). Further, norm-disruptive experiences of a practical nature may need to incorporate opportunities for reflection.

“Perseverance” encompasses themes related to commitment and resolve in completing the experiences (i.e. finishing the course, program, or workshop). Difficulties and ambiguities are sure to arise in norm-disruptive learning, so dissonance might be acknowledged and normalized. Instructors might build in affirmative experiences to balance dissonances (e.g. highlighting participant successes). An element of camaraderie may also be helpful. Music teacher educators may look to build a sense of belonging between music teachers, as well as their students and community. Longer experiences may help, so music teachers have time to acclimate and receive support. Indeed, all but two studies in this thematic synthesis regarded immersive experiences lasting 1 to 3 weeks or university courses lasting a semester or longer.

Four analytic themes comprise the meta-theme “expansion,” which relate to change that may occur as a result of norm-disruptive learning. As there are different ways that music teachers can expand beyond norms (e.g. toward “valuing difference” or greater “motivation”), music teacher educators should be specific in their curricular aims: is the goal for music teachers to understand another culture more deeply? Or to demonstrate the ability to teach in a new way? Alternatively, is the goal to spark interest in further learning and application? Motivation is an important part of the norm-disruptive learning cycle and one that music teacher educators might aim to influence.

Across studies, expanded interest in and appreciation for diverse people and musics (“valuing difference”) was not as commonly reported as expanded pedagogical and musical abilities (“expanded abilities and assurance”). Today, it is generally accepted that music teachers need to create programs relevant to all students, with facets that honor diverse interests, needs, and musical realities. Thus, it seems important that teachers have an appreciation for diverse students and musical processes. Based on our findings, guiding music teachers to develop these values and interests is most likely to come through fieldwork exchanges with diverse students and communities as the strongest values appear to evolve through interpersonal exchange.

One final point of interest is that four studies reported music teacher maintenance of ethnocentric, biased views (e.g. with statements based on the normalcy of white culture). With this, it is worth emphasizing that norm-disruptive learning cannot eliminate ethnocentrism and bias altogether. Music teachers will begin experiences “at a variety of entry points” (Robinson, 2005, p. 174), and several studies noted that participants who brought higher levels of openness and awareness were able to attain deeper outcomes. Music teacher educators need to understand that each music teacher will develop in different ways—some able to release ethnocentric attachments more readily than others.

Limitations

We recognize that our interpretations are removed from the original data, thus offer only one (our) perspective, and acknowledge that synthesis processes may not do full justice to the original studies. We emphasize that nuances of the emergent themes need further development and research; for example, it is unclear what experiences and characteristics of experience had the greatest or least influence on music teachers and why. Often, case studies described the nature of experience, but did not assign any weight to or connection between themes. Many studies reported individual rather than synthesized shifts, and experience characteristics and outcomes may have been unreported due to limited research scopes. The themes uncovered in this thematic synthesis stem from the 15 studies reviewed, some of which did not consistently follow best practice in conducting qualitative inquiry. Finally, while we aimed to allow data to “speak” for itself at each analytic stage, it is possible our backgrounds and value for culturally diverse and equitable practice shaped this process and the development of this framework.

Conclusion

In conclusion, we consider again that music students today require music teachers who have the ability to expand practices and musical possibilities if and when in students’ best interest. Students deserve music teachers who have self-awareness, an awareness of others, and who value diversity. Music teachers equipped with skill and knowledge from within only one cultural paradigm may deny or misunderstand students who would benefit from more. However, we acknowledge that in some cases, expansion beyond the ethnocentric may not be necessary. Nonetheless, fundamentally most if not all music teachers today will benefit from expansion through norm-disruptive learning. Findings from this thematic synthesis can serve as a tentative guide in exploring best practices for this process. Comparative or experimental research might examine the nature of learning across two different exchanges (e.g. one featuring camaraderie and one not) or examine the nature and influence of norm-disrupting programs of different lengths and vividness. More research is certainly needed on how this learning influences teachers post-experience, as well as its impact at different stages of one’s career (e.g. early, mid, and late career in-service groups). Finally, further study of norm-disruptive learning in music teacher education will assist in supporting and/or reshaping this preliminary framework.

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Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Catherine Bennett

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Notes

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