A portrait of self-regulated musical learning behaviors among rock musicians: Applications in music education

Abstract

Rock music and Western classical music seem very different but musicians in the two cultures may have enough self-regulated musical learning behaviors in common for concurrent application in school-based music education. In this paper, I describe the self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors of seven successful rock musicians, compare their behaviors to those expected in the Western classical tradition, and suggest ways to combine norms from both traditions in effective music education programs. Data are collected through digital ethnography methodology from a series of interviews published in YouTube. Emergent themes in the self-regulated musical learning behaviors of rock musicians include (1) passion for music making, (2) the importance of choice, (3) a need for personal control over learning, and (4) an emphasis on musical composition in daily practice.

Keywords

Culturally relevant education music education rock music self-regulated musical learning

In this digital ethnography, I used dialectics and deductive reasoning to explore, using the extant framework of McPherson and Zimmerman’s (2002) six dimensions of self-regulated musical learning, some self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors described by a small sample of rock musicians. Then, I sought potential rock-related learning strategies or preferences to apply in culturally-relevant school music classes. Throughout, I created dialectic synthesis by organizing a conversation between my data, the extant literature, and my interpretations of both.

Review of literature

Self-regulated musical learning

Zimmerman (1998) broadly defined self-regulated musical learning as “the degree that individuals are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally active participants in their own learning process” (p. 308). Then, McPherson and McCormick (1999) identified some components of self-regulated musical practice including informal/creative skills, repertoire, and technical work. Finally, McPherson and Zimmerman (2002) suggested a comprehensive and accessible definition including six dimensions of self-regulated musical learning (motive, method, behavior, time usage, social factors, and physical environment), which formed an effective framework for evaluating and describing self-regulated musical learning behaviors.

Motive dimension beliefs include the reasons learners choose to learn including self-efficacy, self-determination, goal setting, and autonomy (McPherson et al., 2017). Self-efficacy describes feelings of capability to start and persist in learning, which includes self-determination feelings (Bandura, 1978). Self-determination includes two components: (1) personal growth and sense of self and (2) enjoyment in behaviors that align with the sense of self (Evans, 2015). These motive dimension beliefs seem foundational to learner behaviors in all other dimensions (Renwick, 2008). Nikki Sixx expressed the potentially motivating value of behaviors that align with self,

[3:40]- I sit home, I have like a little amp on my kitchen table, I’m drinking coffee and I’ll start playing guitar first thing in the morning. I’ll hit a riff and have that same feeling that I first started learning music. (Sixx, Scott Ian, 2017e)

Autonomy is also closely related to efficacy because autonomous humans can shape their own circumstances and efforts. Autonomy and self-regulated learning seem effective for increasing student motivation in classroom settings (Butler, 2002). For self-determined, autonomous learners, goal-setting may be an outward expression of performance efficacy (Hatfield, 2018). Thus, self-determination, goal-setting, and autonomy, in this context, are outward expressions of musicians’ self-efficacy in their music learning efforts.

The related method and behavior dimensions start with self-efficacy as described in the motive dimension and include self-selected goals and learning strategies (method), as well as progress monitoring and self-set outcome expectations (behavior). McPherson’s (1993, 1996, 1997) foundations for the method and behavior dimensions were based upon Pintrich and De Groot’s (1990) link between self-efficacy and the application of cognitive strategies. That is, those who felt more capable of success (motive) were also more likely to apply cognitive strategies (behavior) appropriate to the academic success (method) they sought.

Then, Jagow (2007) defined learning strategies (method) and learning behaviors (behavior) in music education that are both psychomotor, movement and communication skills, and affective, attending to and organizing new information in the brain. Since adolescent musicians are likely to follow practice routines and strategies established during instruction (Holmes-Davis, 2015), a psychomotor attention to model strategy may support success in the method and behavior dimensions of self-regulated musical learning. Nita Strauss, guitarist for Alice Cooper, described an application of the attention to model strategy,

[6:05] I remember being this stubborn kid guitar player,. . ., and this guy was like ‘OK so you go like’ [plays Megadeath riff] and I didn’t know how to palm mute at the time so I’m going [plays with notes too long] and I was like, ‘Why doesn’t it sound like that?’ and he goes, ‘No, you’ve got to put your hand like this. . .’ (Sixx, Strauss, 2017c)

Finally in the last three dimensions, we address the ways musicians seek help and use learning tools such as print texts, recordings, and model performances (social factors). In the physical environment dimension, learners structure their tools and space to optimize their self-identified and self-monitored (method and behavior) efforts. Learners must also structure daily and long-term efforts (time usage) to optimize their self-monitored results, mitigate burn out, and avoid injury (Zimmerman, 2002). McPherson and McCormick (1999) summarized these dimensions as “self-regulatory processes, as evidenced when students decide to manage their own learning by blocking out distractions” (p. 99).

Culturally-responsive music education

Musicians and teachers in the twenty-first century have historically unprecedented access to music-making styles, communities, and settings. Indeed, the European frameworks of American music education may now be unsuitable in our multicultural society (Shaw, 2012). For example, Motley Crue bassist Nikki Sixx described his reaction to a teacher whose pedagogy did not align with his self-set goals,

[11:50] I went to take a bass lesson when I was really young . . ., and I said, ‘I just want to learn “Rock Bottom” by UFO’ and he said, ‘no, I’m not gonna teach you any songs.’ So, I never went back and then I started writing my own songs. . . (Sixx, John 5, 2017b)

Casas-Mas et al. (2015) found similar educational outcomes when using classical, flamenco, and jazz music in music classes in Spain, and that “cultures could learn from each other: The informal learning culture could create greater learning autonomy, and the formal learning culture could use more emotional and communicative processes. . .” (p. 1225). So, rock musicians’ self-regulated musical learning behaviors, as identified in this sample, may fit into the existing six dimensions of self-regulated musical learning, and support research-based repertoire and, teaching and learning strategies for culturally-responsive music classes.

Purpose and rationale

This rock-focused investigation began with a video conversation between Slash (Guns N Roses) and Nikki Sixx (Motley Crue) about their musical influences, learning strategies, and music experiences. During that conversation, they discussed some self-regulated musical learning behaviors: motivation to learn and metronome use. This led me to question whether rock musicians might describe other self-regulated musical learning behaviors and whether they might describe strategies that could be useful in pedagogical application to reach diverse music students.

Research questions

In what, if any, self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors do rock musicians in this sample engage?

Are there potential applications from these rock musicians’ self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors for use in culturally-responsive school music settings?

Method

Ethnographic methodology is appropriate when observing and describing the social experiences of a people group (Jones & Smith, 2017; Reeves et al., 2017). As it is virtually impossible to gain direct access to successful rock musicians, I collected data from a series of published interviews, applying observational netnography techniques (Ardévol & Gómez-Cruz, 2014; Bowler, 2010; Pink et al., 2015). I used deductive analytical strategies because I was attempting to answer specific research questions and because it seemed reasonable to build on McPherson and Zimmerman’s (2002) established framework for describing self-regulated musical learning while gathering data about this musician group.

Since digital ethnography is a new research methodology and is still uncomfortable to many, I worked within Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) evaluative criteria for qualitative inquiry: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability. I also checked my work by ensuring, “validity during data generation is evaluated through the researcher’s ability to articulate collection decisions, demonstrate prolonged engagement and persistent observation, provide verbatim transcription, and achieve data saturation” (Cypress, 2017, p. 261). For example, I demonstrated prolonged engagement, persistent observation, and data saturation by manually transcribing the entire video series to identify and code points of agreement with McPherson and Zimmerman’s (2002) six dimensions of self-regulated musical learning behaviors until I established the point of global agreement within this sample, and then I expanded my search into other web-published interviews to confirm or seek new data. The initial data seemed sufficient and complete because no new ideas emerged from the ongoing search. These musicians seemed consistent in their descriptions of learning behaviors and preferences. I transferred the descriptions of self-regulated musical learning behaviors to specific strategies for use in music classrooms. Finally, I demonstrated confirmability and credibility by comparing common behaviors described in the literature with those expressed here and verbatim transcription by including links to the source material and time stamps in all transcript excerpts.

Sample selection and data collection

Miksza (2012) created a useful tool based on McPherson and Zimmerman’s (2002) six dimensions, for measuring self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors in instrumental musicians (Zhang et al., 2023), which is particularly effective for evaluating musicians’ self-perspectives of their learning behaviors (Holmes-Davis, 2015). I used items adapted from Miksza’s (2012) Measure of Self-Regulated Practice Behaviors in Instrumental Students (MSRPBIIS) as a framework to evaluate the self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors of some successful rock musicians who participated in a 2017 YouTube talk show.

I selected 12 subjects for this study by investigating all seventeen who were interviewed in this web-series until the point of data saturation between participants, which is appropriate when the goal is understanding rather than generalizability (Palinkas et al., 2015). My initial sample size was seven, but I expanded to 12 after I reexamined the data to describe the physical environment dimension more fully, which was probably necessary because that dimension was excluded from Miksza’s MSRPBIIS, so it was the least defined in my initial framework.

I collected data by manually transcribing the seventeen interviews into Microsoft Word and concurrently coding according to agreement with the items from Miksza’s (2012) MSRPBIIS and related literature on self-regulated musical learning behaviors. For example, a motive dimension item included, “Compared with others, I expect to do very well.” Method and behavior dimension items included, “When I’m practicing, I try to think about the best way to work out a problem.” Items related to seeking help (social factors) included, “I look up definitions for unfamiliar terms and symbols when practicing,” and time usage included, “I have difficulty concentrating when practicing for extended periods of time.” In this way, I used deductive analysis to arrange data according to the framework established by McPherson and Zimmerman (2002) and Miksza (2012). However, I used inductive analysis to describe the physical environment dimension because Miksza (2012) did not measure that dimension. Finally, due to early findings pertaining to the aural rock tradition and rockers tendencies to learn in nontraditional settings, I adapted this (social factors) item to include help-seeking with any teacher, mentor, or peer, “I talk to my band/orchestra teacher about how to practice.” I also included verbal descriptions of musical needs in the item, “I mark trouble spots in music when practicing.”

I began early coding during data collection as I chose under which dimensions to put specific statements. Then, I continuously evaluated my coding choices as I reviewed the source material and extant self-regulated musical learning literature. Many statements could relate to multiple dimensions, which created some coding difficulties. When confronting multiple possibilities, I stayed with the dimension most related to their conversation topic at that time and noted the cross-over in my data presentation. Finally, I checked the data against other digital sources, emergent themes, and conclusions. I stopped collecting and coding data once new sources yielded no new information. In this way, I reached data saturation twice, first, when new participants agreed and second, when new sources generated no new data.

In addition to reporting themes, I included transcript excerpts with time stamps to support my conclusions and to preserve the authentic voices of these musicians (Hendricks, 2021; Kertz-Wetzel, 2018). Due to the public status of the subjects and data sources, I coded and reported data under subjects’ stage names. All information, ideas, and words represented in this study are already public, so there is no increased risk to subjects due to inclusion in this paper. Consent and IRB approval for this inquiry are also unnecessary because the source material is publicly available.

Call for future inquiry

Future studies are needed to investigate potential trends among a larger body of more diverse rock musicians. My findings should be validated through direct observation of rock musicians’ practice efforts and the results of any pedagogical applications also need validation through direct observation. Finally, if given the unlikely opportunity to directly question famous rock musicians, practice information is needed regarding years on instrument, facility on secondary instrument(s), the number of daily practice hours, and time devoted to formal and informal practice.

Data and initial discussion

Miksza’s (2012) MSRPBIIS may be useful in defining characteristic behaviors associated with five of the six dimensions of self-regulated musical learning behaviors. Miksza omitted physical environment from the 2012 MSRPBIIS because few children have meaningful control over their practice environments. I discussed emergent themes in all six dimensions because the musicians in this sample are free and able to control their practice environments.

Motive dimension

The rock musicians in this sample did not compare themselves or their efforts with others but focused internally on their own excitement and love for music-making. Emergent themes in this motive dimension data included: (1) autonomy and (2) passion in music making. All subjects in this sample discussed personal interest in music making, which was expected based on the review of literature related to the motive dimension (Table 1).

Table 1.

Motive dimension data.

	Slash	J 5	N 6	Z W	S I	N S	S V	R S	P C	JH	TM	JB
Choice—Autonomy	X	X	X	X	X	X		X			X	X
Self-determination (enjoyment)	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X

Musicians in this sample seemed focused on the autonomy and self-determination aspects of self-efficacy. Most of these rock musicians discussed their need for choice in musical learning. They expressed both parts of Evans (2015) description of self-determination: (1) goals that align with self and (2) enjoyment in self-aligned goals. For example, Scott Ian described the intersection between autonomy and self-aligned goals. While John 5 and Zakk Wylde focused on enjoying self-aligned goals while learning.

Choice in learning (autonomy)

Scott Ian [2:07] So, like when I would come home with ACDC records, I would learn all the chords on the songs, but I couldn’t be bothered to then . . . slow the record down and learn Angus’s solos. (Sixx, Scott Ian, 2017e)

Enjoyment and learning

John 5 [12:20] It’s what you want to do so you don’t put down the guitar . . . I’ll say, what songs do you like, and I’ll teach them a little bit and they’ll be so amazed, you know like,. . . that’s so inspiring to someone . . . (Sixx, John 5, 2017b)

Zakk Wylde [8:52] But the thing is, you can introduce music to a kid, but . . . you can’t force someone to like it. . . (Sixx, Wylde, 2017j)

Self-aligned goals

These autonomous musicians demonstrated self-determination by choosing learning settings that were enjoyable and met their personal goals. For example, Nikki Sixx’s bass teacher may have kept him as a student had instruction started with learner interests. Zakk Wylde’s teacher started with personal interest to greater success,

Zakk Wylde [12:41] . . .I remember my guitar teacher showing me [plays ‘Back in Black’ opening riff], I could play the chords, but I couldn’t get the [plays descending scale riff]. That was like a major breakthrough when I learned that and when he was actually showing me scales and it was, you’re like, ‘Oh wow!’ (Sixx, Wylde, 2017j)

John 5 also leverages personal interest when teaching music:

John 5 [11:08] When I teach guitar to someone for the first time, I’m like, ‘What bands do you like?’ . . .If they say ‘ACDC’, I’m like, ‘well here’s an A chord. . . I’ll say hit these three times’ and they’ll be like. . . [demonstrates]. Oh! That sounds like ‘Highway to Hell’ [plays full opening riff]. And then they’re like, ‘oh my god!’, and then they’ll never put down the guitar. . . (Sixx, John 5, 2017b)

Method/behavior dimensions

Emergent method and behavior dimension themes, including self-identified needs, appropriate practice strategies, and aurally aware of errors, remained grounded in the motive dimension themes of autonomy and enjoyment in music making, and seemed rooted in Jagow’s (2007) psychomotor behaviors (Table 2).

Table 2.

Method/behavior dimension data.

	Slash	J 5	N 6	Z W	I S	N S	S V	R S	P C	J H	TM	JB
M: Identify practice needs	X	X	X			X		X	X	X	X	X
M: Choosing strategies	X		X	X	X		X	X	X	X		X
B: Aware of errors	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X
B: Corrects errors—aural feedback	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X

Zakk Wylde and Nita Strauss described self-set practice goals that aligned with sense of self and required them to choose appropriate practice strategies. Slash and Nikki Sixx both described the self-selected strategy of recreating others’ music by mimicking albums.

Zakk Wylde [7:55] I remember seeing a country video with Albert Lee and just the sound with flat picking and chicken picking. I mean the sound of it and the whole technique was so interesting. I bought the tape and just started copying it. . . Like you said, if it’s something that moves you and you want to learn it, then you can learn it. (Sixx, Wylde, 2017j)

Nita Strauss [2:24] I think I get better all the time because . . . Now on this new solo [album], I’ve pushed myself to do stuff that I’m not as good at, so I have to practice. I have to nail it. . . (Sixx, Strauss, 2017c)

Slash [7:32] You know “Black Dog” (by Led Zeppelin), I’ve mentioned. . . and so everybody knows this [plays opening and extended riffs from Black Dog]. I get tangled in there, and I finally learned what it was [correctly plays both riffs]. Yeah, because I could never totally hear what it was. . . (Sixx, Slash, 2017f).

Nikki Sixx [8:42] ‘A Whole Lot of Love’ [by Led Zeppelin], yeah, I think we both played it wrong for a long time. . . [9:19] If you miss the little thing, it screws it all up, but sometimes you can’t hear it on the record. . . (Sixx, Slash, 2017f)

Social factors, physical environment, and time usage

These rock musicians seemed to combine help-seeking behaviors (social factors) within their time and physical space structures, but their musical efforts remained consistently informed by enjoyment in music and autonomy (motive) in goal-setting and self-monitoring activities (method and behavior).

Time usage

Musicians in my sample did not describe issues with distraction, burnout, or motivation. The most prominent time-related factors described were logistics and strategies for regular practice. They seem to practice for enjoyment and self-set goals, such as individual composition and performance needs (Table 3).

Table 3.

Time-usage dimension data.

	Slash	J 5	N 6	Z W	I S	N S	S V	R S	P C	J H	TM	JB
Daily practice	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X
Composition in practice	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X

An unexpected finding was the importance of musical composition in these rock musicians’ daily practice. All subjects discussed composition in their interviews, and none separated composition from their standard practice efforts. It is noteworthy that their composition efforts were sometimes based in a traditional understanding of music theory, such as scales and harmonic progressions, but were more frequently focused on riff-building, though understanding-in-action (Gonzalez, 2019) seemed common and allowed them to apply functional knowledge of music theory without articulating it verbally.

John 5 played and composed aurally using scales, while Rudy Sarzo verbally articulated his understanding of basic music theory.

John 5 [3:18] As you know, I’ll sit on the couch and I’ll just play. . . and I’ll try [plays a scale exercise] . . . and I’m like, let me try to turn this into a song, you know, so I’ll do. . . [plays a metal riff based on the previous exercise]. So, I’ll get the trusty metronome out and I’ll put, like, a beat to that or try to make a song out of that. (Sixx, John 5, 2017b)

Rudy Sarzo [0:58] You asked me about my favorite riff . . . It’s the iconic [plays Crazy Train riff]. It’s repetitive, but . . . You being a composer, you know the importance of having a riff that contrasts with the rest of the song. You know, this riff is a minor, it’s the Aeolian. You know, it lives in, it’s an F# minor. . . The song is actually in A major. You know it’s so great because it’s in the relative minor. As a matter of fact, the whole song uses all the modes of A major. . . It uses every single chord that is in the A major scale. (Sixx, Sarzo, 2017)

Jason Hook described timbral issues rather than tonal issues related to musical composition and performance, as fitting the musical needs of his band. Instrumentalists should recognize the changes in fingering or fretting that a lower tuning requires. Hook’s casual statement depreciates the relearning, practice, and technical proficiency required for competence in both standard and the lower tuning.

Jason Hook [1:05] We (Five finger Death Punch) play in what is called baritone tuning, which is B standard, that is B to B. You can imagine regular guitars E to E, yeah, we’re quite a way down from that. Very low tuning. It does [get muddy] because you can imagine and you know some of the drums, the bass, all occupying that low frequency. . . I play some of our stuff on a seven-string so I can get those low chords but also play some of the stuff that needs to be up higher. . . (Sixx, Hook, 2017a)

Social factors

Help-seeking behaviors described by these rock musicians resembled those defined in McPherson and Zimmerman’s (2002) six dimensions of self-regulated musical learning and Miksza’s (2012) MSRPBIIS items, such as listening to performances and recordings, and/or seeking guidance from other musicians (Table 4).

Table 4.

Social factors dimension data.

	Slash	J 5	N 6	Z W	I S	N S	S V	R S	P C	J H	TM	JB
Listening	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X
Other musicians	X		X		X		X				X

Their help-seeking behaviors frequently overlapped those associated with other dimensions, such as motive/behavior dimension descriptions of their efforts to learn Led Zeppelin tunes from Nikki Sixx and Slash. Additionally, Steve Vai’s help-seeking intersected the composition theme related to time usage.

Steve Vai [8:39] He (Frank Zappa) would show me this one riff and it went [plays riff]. . . .Yeah, so that, a month goes by and I’m in the studio again and. . . I showed him, and he goes, ‘OK, add this,’ . . .so, then I did that and then another month goes by. . . [Every time Vai mastered a section, Zappa added another section that eventually became melodies for two new pieces] (Sixx, Vai, 2017g)

Scott Ian and Nita Strauss relied on records to model new musical ideas, skills, and goals, though Strauss also described needing support from a more experienced musician. Finally, though Slash did not seem to seek help with a musical struggle, he did accept and apply help when it became available.

Scott Ian [7:20] For me, ACDC was kind-of like my guitar lessons. I took guitar lessons when I first started playing for a few months, and then I just didn’t want to take lessons. . . I was like, just teach me to play Zeppelin and play this and play that. (Sixx, Ian, 2017e)

Nita Strauss [5:02] The song “Trust” [by Megadeath] had just come out and I remember. . . it’s just like so heavy and I was like ’Oh my god!’ it knocked me on my ass, this song, so I went to this older guitar player that I knew and I was like, ‘how do you play that song?. . ..’ (Sixx, Strauss, 2017c)

Slash [8:15] I never could totally hear what it was, and it was Jason Bonham who showed it to me. . . He saw me improvising my way through that and he was like, “It’s just this. . .’ (Sixx, Slash, 2017f)

Physical environment

Miksza’s (2012) MSRPBIIS omitted the physical environment dimension because few children have the power to meaningfully shape them. These rock musicians, however, should have control over their spaces, so I included it here. I found two prominent topics related to physical environment within these discussions: procedures for composing in groups, and equipment preferences, such as instruments, amps, pedals, etc. (Table 5).

Table 5.

Physical environment dimension data.

	Slash	J 5	N 6	Z W	I S	N S	S V	R S	P C	J H	TM	JB
Composition	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X	X
Equipment		X	X	X	X	X	X			X	X

For example, Slash and Phil Collen described composition logistics of working on album material, while Tom Morello described the guitar features that led him to develop his unique guitar sound. It is noteworthy that these rock icons seemed frequently bound to or limited by their environments but were able to work within their restrictions to become musically successful.

Slash [15:51] We were rehearsing in Nikki Beat’s place in Silver Lake. We would have three hours booked there and a lot of the material on “Appetite for Destruction” came during those sessions. . .Just all of us coming in to rehearse (Sixx, Slash, 2017f).

Phil Collen [2:30] ‘Love Bites’ went to number one on the Billboard, and we’d never played it as a band, right? It was a studio thing, so we had to rehearse for two days to get it, . . . Oh my God! It was so hard and that whole thing because you take the most prominent parts and make a collage of them. . . (Sixx, Collen, 2017d)

Tom Morello [4:13] . . .I had a guitar with a bunch of knobs and pickups, and it was like the uncoolest guitar so as long as I’m stuck with this guitar, I just see if there’s some application. So, one day I was in college, and I just started messing around with the toggle switch . . . I found that if I went between the pickups, I could make it sound kind of like a keyboard. . . (Sixx, Morello, 2017h)

Limitations

Sample size and the available data source are limitations of this investigations. Both are necessary due to the multilayers of protection that prevent direct access to successful rock musicians, so I used what I had for this initial exploration. As mentioned in the call for future inquiry, more studies are needed to validate these findings through direct observation and among diverse groups of rock musicians, including students and amateurs.

Digital ethnography has advantages and drawbacks. First, an important advantage is my subjects were unaware of the self-regulated musical learning applications of their words and could not skew the data. Second, a drawback is that only well-known and commercially successful musicians are represented in this data source, which may bias my sample toward uncommonly high levels of self-regulated musical learning behavior. Finally, member checks are impossible within this population, a limitation for which I controlled by including transcript excerpts and time stamps from the source material.

Conclusions and further discussion

In what, if any, self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors do these rock musicians engage?

Rock musicians in this sample reported engagement in McPherson and Zimmerman’s (2002) six dimensions of self-regulated musical learning, with three distinctive characteristics: (1) they demanded learning experiences that aligned with sense of self, autonomy, and self-determination (motive), (2) they emphasized composition in everyday musical practice (time usage), and (3) they focused on musical understanding-in-action rather than notation-based literacy (behavior and time usage).

These musicians’ interactions with McPherson and Zimmerman’s (2002) six dimensions of self-regulated musical practice behaviors were not discrete. Behaviors in each dimension overlapped with those from other dimensions, which sometimes confounded description, but also helped highlight prevalent themes.

Most notably, autonomy and self-determination (motive) seemed vital throughout these rock musicians’ self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors. For example, these musicians self-reported proficiency in identifying errors and selecting appropriate practice strategies for error correction (method and behavior) while maintaining their learning autonomy (motive). They chose when and how to seek help (social factors) rather than learn in traditional teacher-led environments. Next, their commitments to daily practice (time usage) seemed comparable to other musicians, but these rock musicians reportedly emphasized composition and improvisation rather than scales and technical studies (motive- self-determination), though all demonstrated theoretical knowledge-in-action (social factors) in their compositions and descriptions. Their help-seeking behaviors (social factors) seemed comparable to those expected in all traditions, they listened and sought help from peers and mentors when necessary. Finally, though it seems they should have more control over their physical practice environments than children, their touring situations seemed limiting. Many reported standard, self-established procedures (behavior) for practicing both at home and while away from home (motive—self-determination).

In conclusion, these rock musicians reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors representative of all six of McPherson and Zimmerman’s (2002) dimensions. They also seemed determined to make music on their own terms. For example, they demanded learning environments and strategies that matched their self-aligned goals, and they overcame all barriers in their physical environments to practice daily at home and on the road.

Are there potential applications from these rock musicians’ self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors to benefit school music settings?

Musicians in this sample reported desires for high levels of autonomy (motive) throughout the learning process. They seemed willing and able to demand music education settings and strategies (social factors) that aligned with their senses of self (motive) and their self-set musical goals (method). Several reported quitting musical lessons that did not meet personal goals in favor of learning in non-traditional settings (social factors). School music teachers may find a need for flexibility and choice in repertoire and pedagogical strategies to retain students who tend toward the rock tradition.

Additionally, these rock musicians seemed to create their own ensembles rather than stay in programs that only offered traditional school-music options, but teachers could retain some of them by contracting community musicians to teach rock, jazz, mariachi, blues, and other culturally-relevant co-curricular music ensembles.

Next, some differences between the group’s self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors seem pedagogically balanced with traditional school music needs. For example, if the aural transmission of rock music is seen as a pedagogical weakness, the prominence of compositional activities in the rock tradition may meet frequently overlooked composition standards.

Finally, rock musicians in this sample seemed to understand music theory in action, that is they each demonstrated control over scales, keys, chord progressions, and composition tools with or without demonstrating the notation skills or verbal language to describe their musical efforts. Music teachers may credit musical demonstrations as well as correct use of vocabulary during lessons. For example, Rudy Sarzo used both musical vocabulary and knowing-in-action to explain the scales and tonal centers that shape “Crazy Train.” While John 5 actively demonstrated the use of scales in composition by first playing the scale, then playing a scale-based riff, and finally improvising a new song using the scale-based riff. Both understood, manipulated, and applied the musical concept, but only one would get credit in a traditional music class or lesson.

In conclusion, these rock musicians seemed to demonstrate all self-regulated musical learning behaviors as defined by McPherson and Zimmerman (2002), with some specific behaviors and preferences. Autonomy and self-determination seemed to be essential characteristics of the self-reported self-regulated musical learning behaviors of rock musicians in this sample. So, school music teachers may find choice in ensemble, repertoire, or learning processes to be useful strategies for musicians like these.

Footnotes

Author contributions

Tina Holmes-Davis: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration.

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Tina Holmes-Davis

References

Ardévol

Gómez-Cruz

(2014). Digital ethnography and media practices. The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies, 7, 498–518.

Bandura

(1978). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Advances in Behavior Research and Therapy, 4(1), 139–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/0146-6402(78)90002-4

Bowler

G. M.

(2010). Netnography: A method specifically designed to study cultures and communities online. The Qualitative Report, 15(5), 1270–1275. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2010.1341

Butler

(2002). Autonomy-supportive teaching in the large ensemble: Positive outcomes for student motivation and teacher satisfaction. Music Educators Journal, 108(4), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/00274321221107537

Casas-Mas

Pozo

J. I.

Scheuer

(2015). Musical learning and teaching conceptions as sociocultural productions in classical, Flamenco, and Jazz cultures. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 46(9), 1191–1225. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022115603124

Cypress

B. S.

(2017). Rigor or reliability and validity in qualitative research: Perspectives, strategies, reconceptualization, and recommendations. Dimensions of Critical Care Nursing, 36(4), 253–263. https://doi.org/10.1097/DCC.0000000000000253

Evans

(2015) Self-determination theory: An approach to motivation in music education. Musicae Scientiae, 19(1), 65–83.

Gonzalez

A. O.

(2019). Understanding in action: An analysis of its levels and qualities. In Feza

(Ed.), Metacognition in learning (pp. 1–14). InTechOpen. https://hdl-handle-net.web.bisu.edu.cn/1946.34843

Hatfield

J. L.

(2018). Goal-setting and self-determination in music making: Tenets of becoming a deliberate and motivated music practitioner. Nordic Research in Music Education, 18, 271–294.

10.

Hendricks

K. S.

(2021). Counternarratives: Troubling majoritarian certainty. Action, Criticism & Theory for Music Education, 20(4), 58–78. https://doi.org/10.22176/act20.3.58

11.

Holmes-Davis

(2015). “But I did practice!” Self-reported versus observed self-regulted practice behaviors. Boston University, Music. Boston, MA: Boston University.

12.

Jagow

(2007). Teaching instrumental music: Developing the complete band program. Meredith Music Publications.

13.

Jones

Smith

(2017) Ethnography: challenges and opportunities. Evidence-Based Nursing 20(4), 98–100. https://doi.org/10.1136/eb-2017-102786. Retrieved June 15, 2023, from http://ebn.bmj.com

14.

Kertz-Welzel

(2018). Globalizing music education: A framework. Indiana University Press.

15.

Lincoln

Y. S.

Guba

E. G.

(1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage Publications.

16.

McPherson

G. E.

(1993). Factors and abilities influencing the development of visual, aural, and creative performance skills in music and their educational implications [Doctor of Philosophy. Dissertation Abstracts International 54/04, 1277, University Microfilms No. 9317278]. University of Sydney.

17.

McPherson

G. E.

(1996). Five aspects of musical performance and their correlates. Bulletin for the Council of Research in Music Education, 127, 115–121.

18.

McPherson

G. E.

(1997). Cognitive strategy and skill acquisition in musical performance. Bulletin for the Council of Research in Music Education, 133, 64–71.

19.

McPherson

G. E.

McCormick

(1999). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of musical practice. Bulletin for the Council of Research in Music Education, 133, 64–71.

20.

McPherson

G. E

Miksza

Evans

(2017). Self-regulated learning in musical practice and performance. In Schunk

D. H.

Greene

J. A.

(Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed., pp. 181–193). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315697048

21.

McPherson

G. E.

Zimmerman

B. J.

(2002). Self-regulation of musical learning. In Colwell

Richardson

(Eds.), The new handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 327–347). Oxford University Press.

22.

Miksza

(2012). The development of a measure of self-regulated practice behavior for beginning and intermediate music students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 59(4), 321–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022429411414717

23.

Palinkas

L. A.

Horwitz

S. M.

Green

C. A.

Wisdom

J. P.

Duan

Hoagwood

(2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health, 42(5), 533–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10488-013-0528-y

24.

Pink

Horst

Postill

Hjorth

Lewis

Tacchi

(2015). Digital ethnography: Principles and practice. Sage.

25.

Pintrich

P. R.

De Groot

E. V.

(1990). Motivational and self-regulated learning components of classroom academic performance. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 33–40.

26.

Reeves

Kuper

Hodges

B. D.

(2017). Qualitative research: Qualitative research methodologies: Ethnography. BMJ British Medical Journal, 337(7668), 512–514. https://www-jstor-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/20510696

27.

Renwick

J. M.

(2008). Because I love playing my instrument: Young musicians’ internalized motivation and self-regulated practice behavior [Doctoral dissertation]. UNSW Sydney.

28.

Shaw

(2012). The skin that we sing. Culturally responsive choral music education. Music Educators Journal, 98(4), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/0027432112443561

29.

Sixx Sense. (2017a). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: Jason Hook (Five Finger Death Punch). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F15AyzrGIFA&t=120s

30.

Sixx Sense. (2017b). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: John 5 (Rob Zombie). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gArW4Nl7ZdQ&t=6s

31.

Sixx Sense. (2017c). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: Nita Strauss (Alice Cooper). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dnftQyWogNg

32.

Sixx Sense. (2017d). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: Phil Collen (Def Leppard). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PSqrAbYCfr8&t=166s

33.

Sixx Sense. (2017e). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: Scott Ian (Antrax). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CWKN0nRiBpU&t=978s

34.

Sixx Sense. (2017f). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: Slash. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XzurBBp_Q8w&t=725s

35.

Sixx Sense. (2017g). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: Steve Vai. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I9OrBpg9tQY

36.

Sixx Sense. (2017h). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: Tom Morello. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xiVhO1f9f3M&t=292s

37.

Sixx Sense. (2017i). My favorite riff with Nikki Sixx: Zakk Wylde (Ozzy Osbourne and Black Label Society). YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnJmrrgBJ2k&t=980s

38.

Zhang

Kwan

J. L. Y.

Leung

B.-W.

(2023). Adaptation of a Self-Regulated Practice Behavior Scale for Chinese music majors. Journal of Research in Music Education, 71(3), 343–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224294221147008

39.

Zimmerman

B. J.

(1998). Academic studying and the development of personal skill: A self-regulatory perspective. Educational Psychologist, 33(2/3), 73–86. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3302&3_3

40.

Zimmerman

B. J.

(2002). Becoming a self-regulated learner: An overview. Theory Into Practice, 41(2), 64–72. https://doi.org/10.1207/1543042tip4102_2