Abstract
Introduction
The main task of the riot police in Germany is handling particularly dangerous situations to ensure internal security (Müller, 2015; Rohde, 2019). For this purpose, the riot police forces are made up of specially trained units (Rohde, 2019). The work of riot police forces is characterised by considerable physical and mental challenges as wearing heavy body protection, intensive physical exertion, irregular food and fluid intake (Rohde, 2019) and shift, weekend, and on-call duties (Bürger and Nachreiner, 2019; Rohde, 2019). These conditions increase their risk for cardiovascular, metabolic and mental health disorders compared to the general population (Bürger und Nachreiner, 2019; Magnavita et al., 2018; Zimmerman, 2012). Furthermore, these demanding working conditions can contribute to unhealthy eating habits (Gibson et al., 2018; MacKenzie-Shalders et al., 2021, 2022), which independently increase cardiometabolic risks in police forces (Gibson et al., 2018).
Since an unfavourable diet is a major cause of cardiovascular and metabolic diseases (Afshin et al., 2019; WHO, 2020), maintaining a balanced diet can significantly reduce these health risks (Afshin et al., 2019; Schwingshackl et al., 2018, 2019). Consequently, the meals provided to riot police forces while on duty offer substantial potential to promote health-supporting working conditions.
Although maintaining a healthy diet is considered a high priority for most police forces (Ambacher et al., 2025; MacKenzie-Shalders et al., 2021, 2022), they are often unable to implement it (MacKenzie-Shalders et al., 2021, 2022). Moreover, studies examining the nutritional quality of food offered in canteens withing such settings show a need for optimisation (Cole et al., 2018; Crombie et al., 2013).
In Germany, riot police forces are officially provided with meals free of charge during duty hours. The legislative basis for the duty meals is established by the nationwide guideline, ‘Supply on Duty’ (Müller, 2015). To date, there is hardly any scientific data on the nutritional offerings for police forces in Germany. Bürger and Nachreiner (2019) report that police forces working shift duty in Germany perceive their diet as of low nutritional quality. The nutritional quality of the meals on duty provided to the riot police in Germany has not yet been scientifically investigated.
Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the nutritional quality of the Meals on duty provided by a police headquarters, using the recommendations of the German Nutrition Society (DGE) (DGE, 2024; DGEa, 2025; Schäfer et al., 2024). Based on the findings, needs will be identified, and practical recommendations for optimising the meals will be proposed.
Methods
Study context and design
The state is obliged to provide the riot police forces with meals while they are on duty (Müller, 2015; Rohde, 2019). At the police headquarters investigated, pre-packaged ‘meals on duty’ are prepared in a canteen kitchen for this purpose. Duty meals typically consist of a large paper bag containing various foods such as sandwiches, fruit, snack bars, convenience products and a selection of beverages. The quantity of food provided depends on the duration of the operation and is intended to ensure sufficient supply of food, energy and nutrients. Each police force receives a duty meal at the start of their operation, with a choice of four meal options (‘mixed diet’, ‘vegetarian’, ‘vegan’, ‘without pork’). In this study, the nutritional quality of the duty meals of 10 randomly selected operations was examined in February and March 2023.
Data collection on food composition, energy, and nutrient content
Data collection occurred within 12 hours of the start of each operation. All four Meal options were analysed. The meals were weighed to the nearest gram in the smallest possible components using digital kitchen scales (Kaiser, Geislingen, Germany). Each component was digitally recorded and assigned to 1 of the 12 DGE food groups (DGEa, 2025; Schäfer et al., 2024) and a corresponding food item in the Federal Food Code 3.02 (BLS). The classification of food groups enabled a comparison with the DGE dietary reference values (DGEa, 2025; Schäfer et al., 2024). The classification of individual food items subsequently enabled a comparison with the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024). When no suitable food item was found in the BLS, recipes were simulated using DGExpert (DGE e.V. Version 1.10.1, Bonn, Germany) based on the list of ingredients and nutritional value table of the food. If ingredients and nutrients were not known, similar foods with known information were used. A special food group was created for a drinkable meal replacement. Calculations were performed for energy, macronutrients, vitamins, minerals, salt and cholesterol. Mean values (MV) were calculated for food groups as well as for energy and nutrient contents across the 10 operations, for all 4 meal options.
Evaluation of the nutritional quality
The assessment of nutritional quality was conducted based on the DGE dietary reference values for food-based recommendations (DGEa, 2025; Schäfer et al., 2024) and DGE reference values for energy and nutrient recommendations (DGE, 2024) as well as on the DGE quality standard for catering in companies, authorities and universities (DGE, 2023). This quality standard provides guidelines and recommendations for creating healthy meals and recommends how food, energy and nutrients can be distributed during the day by the ‘quarter approach’ (see Table 1). For the meals on duty, the ‘quarter approach’ was applied as a reference for distribution and supply of food, energy and nutrients for each operation day (see Table 2).
Recommended distribution of food, energy and nutrient supply during the day according to the ‘quarter approach’ of the DGE quality standard (DGE, 2023).
DGE: German Nutrition Society.
Application of the ‘quarter approach’ of the DGE quality standard to the meals on duty on operational days.
aAccording to the meal planning of the police headquarters. bAccording to the ‘quarter approach’ of the DGE quality standard (DGE, 2023). cAccording to the distribution for energy intake according to the ‘quarter approach’ of the DGE quality standard (DGE, 2023).
DGE: German Nutrition Society; B: breakfast; D: dinner; L: lunch; N: small night meal; S: snack.
The police headquarters plans the duty meals based on a combination of breakfast, lunch, dinner and night meals, depending on time point and duration of the operation. The police internal planning does not provide further between-meal snacks (see Table 2).
For standardised and reproducible evaluation, an operation containing the three meals – breakfast, lunch and dinner – were defined as the daily reference value to be met, representing 100% of the foods (DGE dietary reference values) and 100% of energy and nutrients (DGE reference values) to be contained (according to the DGE quality standard; see Table 2). To allow comparison of different mission lengths and meal quantities, the designated between-meal snack, accounting for 12.5% of daily energy (see Table 1), was placed between 2 meals (see Table 2). Consequently, an operation such on day 1, which includes lunch (25% of daily energy) and dinner (25% of daily energy) must supply 62.5% of daily food, energy and nutrient content, with the snack (12.5 of daily energy) included (see Tables 1 and 2).
Based on this approach, the 10 operational days were assumed to cover an average of 77.5% of daily food, energy and nutrient requirements. Accordingly, for each meal option, the MV (n = 10) of each food group was compared with 77.5% of the respective DGE dietary reference values (DGEa, 2025; Schäfer et al., 2024). Similarly, the MV (n = 10) of energy and nutrient contents were compared with 77.5% of the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024). The reference values were based on the age group of 25 to 51 years and a physical activity level (PAL) of 1.8 for both sexes (DGE, 2024; DGEb, 2025).
Calculation of free sugars
The content of ‘free sugars’ was calculated according to WHO definition, which include all mono- and disaccharides added during production or preparation, as well as those naturally present in honey, syrups, fruit juices and juice concentrates, but exclude naturally occurring sugars in fruit, vegetables and milk (WHO, 2015). Following Heuer (2018), the free sugar content was estimated for relevant food groups such as sweets, juices, soft drinks, baked goods, cereal products, dairy products (excluding lactose) and sauces. If no matching item was found in the BLS, recipes were simulated using DGExpert as described above. Free sugars were calculated as a percentage of total energy intake (E%), with the upper limit of 10 E% used as a reference (WHO, 2015).
Calculation of discretionary foods
The food group ‘discretionary foods’ includes foods that should only be consumed in limited quantities due to their high content of unfavourable nutrients, such as saturated fatty acids or free sugars. Based on Schäfer et al. (2024), the following foods were categorised for this purpose: soft drinks, sweets, sauces as well as (selected) composite dishes that are to be categorised according to the DGE recommendation ‘avoid sweet, salty and fatty foods’ (DGEc, 2025). The average sum of all discretionary foods was calculated as E%. The upper limit of eight E%, was used as reference (Schäfer et al., 2024).
Statistical analysis
The data were analysed using the statistical programme SPSS version 29 (IBM, New York, USA). All results were given in MV ± SD. Normal distribution was examined using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Statistical differences between the MV of the meal options and the DGE dietary reference and reference values were analysed using a one-sample t-test. The significance level was set at p ≤ 0.05.
Results
Food composition
Table 3 shows the range of foods available in the duty meals compared to the DGE dietary reference values (DGEa, 2025; Schäfer et al., 2024) for all four Meal options (‘mixed diet’, ‘vegetarian’, ‘vegan’, ‘without pork’). Wholegrain cereals, potatoes, butter and margarine, fish and meat were not included in any of the meal options. Pulses as well as nuts and seeds were only included in the ‘vegan’ option. For fruit and vegetables and cereal products, all meal options were slightly below the dietary reference values. For juices, the dietary reference value was clearly exceeded for all meal options. The dietary reference value for sausage was clearly exceeded in the ‘mixed diet’ and ‘without pork’ options. The limit value for discretionary foods was also clearly exceeded in all meal options
Food composition of the meal options in comparison with the DGE dietary reference values.
aThis is 77.5% of the DGE dietary reference values (DGEa, Schäfer et al., 2024). b388 g milk equivalents correspond to 388 g milk or 233 g yoghurt or 47 g slices of cheese (DGEa). cEach, meat and fish include the other group. If you eat 27 g of fish, you can still eat 13 g of meat and vice versa (DGEa). dCustom-created food group. eunderlined numbers were used for statistical analysis. *p ≤ 0.05; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.000. DGE: German Nutrition Society; MV: mean values.
Nutrient content
Table 4 shows the energy content and the content of selected nutrients of the meals on duty compared with the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024). The energy content of all meal options exceeded the reference value for men and particularly for women. The macronutrient composition was largely within the reference values. However, protein content was below the reference value for the ‘vegan’ option for both sexes. The levels of monounsaturated (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) were below the reference values for all meal options. Except for ‘vegan’, the levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA) and cholesterol were above the reference values. The levels of free sugar and salt exceeded the reference values for all meal options. The fibre content met the DGE reference value, while the reference value for fibre density was undershot for all meal options.
Energy and specific nutrient content of the meal options compared with the DGE reference values.
aIs 77.5% of the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024). bThe reference value for protein intake has been adjusted from 0.8 g to 1.2 g/kg body weight due to high levels of physical activity (exceeding 5 hours per week) (DGE, 2024; König et al., 2020). cPeople with increased energy requirements (PAL > 1.7) may require higher percentages (DGE, 2024). dWHO recommendation (WHO, 2015). eUderlined number was used for statistical analysis. *p ≤ 0.5; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.000.
DGE: German Nutrition Society; WHO: World Health Organisation; MUFA: monounsaturated fatty acids; PAL: physical activity level; PUFA: polyunsaturated fatty acids; SFA: saturated fatty acids.
Micronutrient content
Figure 1 shows the vitamin content of the meals on duty in comparison with the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024). The vitamin contents largely reached the reference values. However, for vitamin D, the reference values were not achieved in any of the meal options, and for vitamin B12, this was also the case for the ‘vegan’ option.
Vitamin content of the meal options compared with the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024) (in %). *p ≤ 0.5; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.000. DGE: German Nutrition Society.
Figure 2 shows the mineral content of the meals on duty in comparison with the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024). The mineral content largely reached the reference values. However, the iodide content was below the reference value for all meal options, and for zinc, this was also the case for the ‘vegan’ option. The sodium and phosphorus content exceeded the reference value by mostly more than threefold in all meal options.
Mineral content of the meal options compared with the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024) (in %). *p ≤ 0.5; **p ≤ 0.01; ***p ≤ 0.000. DGE: German Nutrition Society.
Discussion
This is the first study to conduct an evaluation of the nutritional quality of the meals on duty provided to the riot police in Germany. The duty meals were investigated at 10 randomly selected operations.
DGE dietary reference values
For the most part, the food provided did not meet the DGE dietary reference values. The Meals on duty contained suboptimal quantities of health-promoting foods such as fruits and vegetables, nuts and pulses. Wholegrain cereals and fish were entirely absent, while nuts and pulses were included only in the ‘vegan’ option. Regular consumption of whole-grain cereals and fruits has been shown to reduce the risk of overweight and obesity (Schlesinger et al., 2019), as well as of cardiovascular disease, stroke, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, colorectal cancer and all-cause mortality (Schwingshackl et al., 2018, 2019). For some of these diseases, this also applies to nuts, vegetables, fish and pulses (Schwingshackl et al., 2018, 2019). It can be assumed that the limited availability of healthy foods results in low consumption during police operations. Over time, such a diet may increase the risk of the mentioned diseases. In contrast, the meals on duty contained excessive amounts of sausage, discretionary foods and juices. A high consumption of sausage has been linked to a higher risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke, hypertension, type 2 diabetes, colorectal cancer and all-cause mortality (Schwingshackl et al., 2018, 2019). Daily intake of discretionary foods, including sugar-sweetened beverages, is associated with higher body mass index (BMI) and increased risks of cardiovascular disease, stroke, hypertension, type 2 diabetes and all-cause mortality (Barrington and White, 2016; Schwingshackl et al., 2018, 2019; Te Morenga et al., 2013). However, the evidence regarding juice consumption remains inconclusive (Collin et al., 2019; Imamura et al., 2015). The oversupply of these unhealthy foods likely promotes their excessive consumption, which may increase the risk of the aforementioned diseases over time.
As a result, there is an urgent need to optimise the food composition of the duty meals by increasing the availability of foods beneficial to health, in order to support disease prevention.
DGE reference values
Despite the suboptimal quantities in reaching the DGE dietary reference values (DGEa, 2025; Schäfer et al., 2024), the DGE reference values (DGE, 2024) were largely met. However, suboptimal quantities were observed for energy, fibre density, fat quality, cholesterol, salt and free sugars.
Energy content
The energy content of the duty meals was excessively high, particularly for women. This is attributable to the high amounts of energy-dense foods, such as discretionary foods, sausages and juices. The energy-dense food supply can increase the risk of overweight and obesity, which is more prevalent with age (Biesalski et al., 2018; DGE, 2024). Since most riot police forces are under 40 years (Ambacher et al., 2025; MacKenzie-Shalders et al., 2021), they are a relevant target group for preventing overweight, obesity and associated diseases. Conversely, an adequate energy supply is essential to ensure the performance of the riot police forces (Farina et al., 2019). Therefore, an appropriate energy content should be targeted.
Protein content
The protein content of the ‘vegan’ option was insufficient due to limited inclusion of plant-based protein sources like pulses and nuts. Although the DGE dietary reference values for pulses were met for ‘vegan’, these recommendations are designed for an omnivorous diet (Schäfer et al., 2024). For a fully plant-based diet, adjusted recommendations would need to be applied (Biesalski et al., 2018; DGE, 2024; Schäfer et al., 2024).
Fat quality and cholesterol content
Although total fat content met the DGE reference values, the fat quality was suboptimal across all meal options, characterised by excessive SFA and insufficient MUFA and PUFA. The ‘mixed diet’ contained highest SFA levels, while the ‘vegan’ option had the lowest due to absence of animal fats (DGEb, 2025). MUFA were highest in the mixed diet, likely due to higher pork content, and lowest in the ‘vegan’ option (DGEb, 2025). PUFA were highest in the ‘vegan’ option, likely because of higher amounts of plant oil containing products (DGEb, 2025), exhibiting the best fat quality of the duty meals. Low levels of MUFA and PUFA can be attributed to limited or absent inclusion of nuts, (fish) and margarine (DGEb, 2025). Additionally, the ‘mixed diet’, ‘vegetarian’ and ‘without pork’ options contained excessive cholesterol due to significant amounts of sausage and cheese (DGEb, 2025). Evidence links poor dietary fat quality and excessive cholesterol intake with higher risk of cardiovascular diseases (Sacks et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2022), highlighting the need of optimisation.
Carbohydrates, free sugars and fibre content
While total carbohydrate content approximated DGE reference values, the proportion of free sugars markedly exceeded the WHO recommendation of 10 E% across all meal options (WHO, 2015). This resulted mainly due high quantities of discretionary foods, sweets and sugar-sweetened beverages. These findings are consistent with other studies identifying sources of free sugars in Germany (Ernst et al., 2019; Heuer, 2018). Excessive intake of free sugar is linked to overweight, obesity and associated diseases (Ernst et al., 2019; WHO, 2015), highlighting need for optimisation.
Although total fibre intake met reference values, the optimal fibre density of >14.6 g per 1000 kcal was not achieved across all meal options (DGE, 2024). This likely results from the high content of energy-dense foods and the low content of fibre-rich foods. Adequate dietary fibre intake has been shown to reduce the risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes, lipid metabolism disorders, hypertension and various cancers (Afshin et al., 2019; DGE, 2011; Schwingshackl et al., 2018; Veronese et al., 2018). Given the importance of fibre for health, the fibre density of the duty meals should be increased.
Micronutrients and salt content
Micronutrient levels generally met requirements, except for vitamin D, iodine and within the ‘vegan’ option also vitamin B12 and zinc. This adequacy is partially explained by large quantities of food provided in the duty meals. Low vitamin D and iodine levels result from the absence of fish (DGEb, 2025). However, in Germany dietary intake typically contributes only a small portion of vitamin D requirements (MRI, 2008). Slight iodine undersupply is common in Germany and may be underestimated due to uncertain use of iodised salt in some food products (DGEb, 2025; MRI, 2008). In Contrast, salt content exceeded reference values in all menu options which can be attributed to the predominance of (highly) processed foods and (except for ‘vegan’) large quantities of sausage (Aburto et al., 2013; DGEb, 2025). The salt content of the duty meals exceeds the average consumption levels in Germany (MRI, 2008). High salt intake is directly linked to an increased risk of hypertension and indirectly to a higher risk of cardiovascular disease, stroke and coronary heart disease (Aburto et al., 2013; Afshin et al., 2019). Consequently, a reduction in salt content is strongly recommended.
In summary, the current nutritional quality of duty meals is suboptimal and requires optimisation.
Recommendations for optimization
Energy content and macronutrients
To reduce energy content and increase fibre density, discretionary foods, processed meats and juices could be replaced with vegetables, fruits, legumes, ready-to-eat salads and diluted fruit juice. Increasing the use of whole-grain products, the main fibre source in Germany (MRI, 2008), could help improve fibre density. Patties based on legumes, (unsalted) nut mixes and oil-based spreads could enhance the protein content in the ‘vegan’ option and would improve fat quality as well. To lower free sugar intake, sweets and sugar-sweetened beverages could be substituted with fruits, mineral water and diluted juice.
Micronutrients
Salt content could be reduced by limiting processed meats, cheese and highly salted convenience products. With adequate sun exposure, vitamin D needs can be met without relying heavily on dietary sources (DGE, 2024; DGEb, 2025). Since riot police forces are often wearing protective clothing when outdoors, vitamin D supplementation may be beneficial, especially in winter. The use of iodised salt and, in the case of strict vegan diets, vitamin B12 supplements is also recommended. The inclusion of whole grains, respectively the increase in pulses and nuts could provide sufficient contents of Zinc (DGEb, 2025).
Since the duty meals are not the sole or exclusive source of daily nutrition for the riot police forces, a risk of undersupply is unlikely. By implementing these optimisations, the DGE dietary and reference values are more likely to be achieved.
Optimising duty meals is essential as riot police forces face elevated physical and mental health risks due to demanding working conditions (Bürger and Nachreiner, 2019; Magnavita et al., 2018; Zimmerman, 2012). Evidence indicates that providing balanced meals in the workplace can increase the consumption of foods beneficial to health (Lassen et al., 2018), with specific evidence from military canteens (Cole et al., 2018; Crombie et al., 2013). Moreover, a balanced nutrition at the workplace can reduce absenteeism (Lassen et al., 2018) and associated costs (GKV, 2024) while improving well-being (Lassen et al., 2018), satisfaction (Cole et al., 2018; Lassen et al., 2018) and job performance (Farina et al., 2019; Lassen et al., 2018). Due to the lack of nutritional criteria in the ‘Supply on Duty’ (Müller, 2015), any optimisation efforts should be based on the dietary recommendations of the DGE. Moreover, the Police Union has been advocating for an evaluation of provisioning concepts for years (Müller, 2015; Rohde, 2019).
Limitations
This study examined the duty meals provided at a single police headquarters in one German federal state. Due to the absence of strict nationwide nutritional standards for duty meals (Müller, 2015), each federal state independently designs its provisions, limiting the generalizability of these findings to all of Germany. Furthermore, the data set comprised only 10 operational days, restricting its scope.
This study assessed the provision of food rather than the actual consumption. Previous research in this field has shown that a significant proportion of riot police forces often leave food of the duty meals uneaten (Ambacher et al., 2025). To investigate the proportion of consumption analysing a food protocol could be considered as an option.
Conclusion
This study represents the first nutritional evaluation of the meals on duty provided to the German riot police. While the duty meals of the examined police department largely meet nutritional requirements, there is potential for optimisation in terms of disease prevention and promoting good health in the workplace. With a few targeted changes, the nutritional quality of the duty meals could be significantly improved. For example, increasing the provision of whole grains, vegetables, legumes and nuts, while reducing discretionary foods and processed meats, would substantially enhance the nutritional value. These changes would positively impact the health of riot police forces and contribute to more attractive working conditions.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the Police Headquarters for granting access, facilitating data collection, and providing valuable support throughout the course of this study.
Ethical considerations
This study did not involve human participants or animal experiments. The data were exclusively derived from food samples. No ethical approval was required in accordance with institutional ethic regulations of the University of Education Schwäbisch Gmünd.
Consent for publication
All authors have approved the final manuscript for publication in Nutrition and Health.
Authors’ contributions
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Data availability statement
The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.