Abstract
This is a truly international compendium of insights into, and perspectives on, the lives of young people who are transitioning from out-of-home care, more commonly referred to as ‘young care leavers’. The 43 contributors to the 20 chapters are from 15 different countries, including Australia, the USA, South Africa, Argentina, Jordan, Russia, Vietnam and several European countries including Scandinavia and the UK. As the editors are based in Australia it is not surprising that 16 of the 43 contributors are based there.
The publication adds considerably to the limited research and enquiry about this often marginalised and stigmatised group of young people. Research in the UK was boosted by well-publicised statistics about poor outcomes for young care leavers (Department of Health, 1999), but in many countries this work is just beginning and there is a lack of basic statistical data. Over half the chapters report the findings of studies carried out by the authors. Others examine the impact of countries’ policies and political systems, or discuss issues in conducting research with this group of young people.
The book is divided into four parts, with the first part looking at particularly vulnerable groups of care leavers, those involved in criminal justice systems and those with a disability. The second part presents chapters about the education of young care leavers, with a focus on access to higher education. The third and final parts examine policy and practice through comparisons between countries and through case studies of specific jurisdictions.
Accounts of the outcomes for young care leavers are remarkably similar across the different countries. For example, the contributors document young care leavers’ practical problems including lack of educational qualifications, and their difficulties with employment and finance and with finding suitable accommodation. Further findings relate to their social, emotional and psychological issues and their lack of state or family support. A shocking instance is highlighted in Chapter 18 about young care leavers in Russia, citing figures from Philanthropy (2015) about a ‘lost generation’ in which 10% of these young people committed suicide, 40% became criminals and 40% had problems with alcohol and drug misuse.
The causes of these poor outcomes were also found to have similarities, for example, young people’s experiences of abuse before care, their experiences in care such as frequent placement changes, lack of practical and emotional support in transition and lack of preparation for independence. Several studies documented the failings in particular of residential care, which comprises the main out-of-care facility in several countries.
Contributors offer a range of theoretical models for analysing the experiences of young care leavers such as resilience and attachment theory. Some argue that in-care experiences lead to young care leavers’ lack of social capital. They suggest measures for improving this through increased post-care support and through helping to build up their networks of social connections. As argued in Chapter 20, more emphasis should therefore be placed on young people’s interdependence rather than their independence.
However, as several contributors point out, a focus on individual outcomes has dangers in terms of stigmatising these young people further, and they recommend we consider the significance of structural and cultural factors which contribute to social and economic exclusion. Such arguments will be familiar to Critical Social Policy readers. For example, Chapter 1 highlights the importance of understanding structural factors such as inequalities and the extent of welfare provision. In Western democracies austerity measures have contributed to poor provision. In countries such as Vietnam and South Africa severe poverty, combined with a lack of state infrastructures for post-care support, mean that young care leavers have access only to inadequate family support or poorly funded non-governmental organisations (NGOs).
Critical Social Policy readers may be surprised by some comparisons of state systems. Chapter 10 draws on Pinkerton’s (2011) model for international understanding of the dynamics of leaving care, looking at the intersection of political, cultural and economic factors at a micro, mezzo and macro level. It compares the effects on care leavers of the ‘liberal welfare regime’ in the UK with that of progressive ‘social democratic’ Scandinavia. One would expect that provision in the latter would be more generous, but the discretionary nature of support for care leavers meant that outcomes were still poor and patchy. In the UK, statutory support systems could, if adequately resourced, lead to better provision as of right. The need for a legal right to support is a common theme across the countries studied.
Cultural factors are highlighted in many of the chapters. They attest that young care leavers from minority ethnic groups are further stigmatised and disadvantaged. For example, Chapter 15 provides evidence that in New Zealand indigenous children are over-represented in the care system and often lose connection with their birth culture. In Jordan the experience of stigma is especially acute since most young people in care in this patriarchal, collectivist culture are outsiders by definition. Being illegitimate, many are given no family name, are debarred from full citizenship and suffer widespread rejection and exploitation.
Chapters highlight the extra disadvantage faced by young care leavers with a disability and those in the criminal justice system as well as young people from minority ethnic groups. This reader would have been interested also in an international perspective on the of the disadvantages faced by young care leavers who become early parents, given the evidence of extra scrutiny of their parenting by authorities and the prevalence of child removals (Roberts et al., 2017).
Overall, the book provides fascinating glimpses into the experiences of young care leavers and the care systems (or lack of them) across the world and is a very welcome addition to the literature. Supporting young care leavers is a complex matter but a strong message that comes across is that they should have statutory rights to ongoing support and provision.