How does a dog attack on a guide dog affect the wellbeing of a guide dog owner?

Abstract

Despite over 70% of guide dog owners reporting that their emotional wellbeing had been affected by a dog attack on their guide dog, in-depth qualitative studies examining this issue are lacking. The aim of this work was to further our understanding of the impact of a dog attack on the overall, holistic wellbeing of the guide dog owner. A total of 20 in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted with guide dog owners whose dogs had been the victim of a dog attack. The data were analysed thematically. Findings suggest that a dog attack can have a long-term impact on a guide dog owner’s physical, emotional, social, and spiritual wellbeing. As such, service providers who manage the aftermath of an attack should recognise the potentially multiple and long-term effects on guide dog owner wellbeing and the importance of more holistically oriented support.

Keywords

Dog attack emotional guide dog holistic visual impairment wellbeing

Introduction

Since 2010, the number of reported dog attacks on guide dogs has increased from 3 (Brooks, Moxon, & England, 2010) to 10 per month (Guide Dogs, 2013). Although this phenomenon has been investigated in relation to the physical impact on the guide dog, there remains a gap in our understanding of how attacks can affect the wellbeing of blind and partially sighted guide dog owners. Previous in-house research by Guide Dogs UK found that the emotional wellbeing of the handlers was reported to have been affected after 71.3% of attacks (Guide Dogs, 2013). In extreme cases, guide dog owners may not retrain with another guide dog as a consequence of an attack, which has repercussions for them as individuals, their families, and for Guide Dogs as an organisation. Although this previous research touched upon the impact the attacks had on the guide dog owner’s wellbeing, these data lacked qualitative depth and description and focused primarily on the canine. Consequently, more in-depth qualitative research studies are required to identify the true impact of this phenomenon for a guide dog owner.

Previous research has underlined the importance of the guide dog as part of a working partnership. It is also a companion animal that provides its user with a holistic array of support mechanisms (Godley & Gillard, 2011) and may help to strengthen their owner’s sense of identity (Sanders, 2000). The bond between guide dog and user has been conceived as being based on either physiological and behavioural responses of dogs (Fallani, Prato Previde, & Valsecchi, 2007) or the emotional and spiritual relationship between the human and the non-human animal (Toliver, 2005). The literature on animal-assisted interventions and wellbeing illustrates this latter standpoint regarding the impact the bond between humans and other animals has on various areas of wellbeing (Antonacopoulos & Pychyl, 2010; Aydin et al., 2011; Banks, Willoughby, & Banks, 2008).

The concept of ‘wellbeing’ has received significant interest in public policy and discourse of late. This is evident in the fact that the term features strongly in relation to initiatives and programmes both within and external to Guide Dogs as a community of practice (Ereaut & Whiting, 2008; Marquès-Brocksopp, 2012a, 2012b, 2013; VISION 2020 Conference, 2011). Furthermore, recent research has begun to consider the ‘holistic’ nature of wellbeing: the importance of addressing not only the physical, but the interrelated emotional, social, and spiritual factors which enable us to feel ‘well’ (Nichols & Hunt, 2011). Table 1 gives an overview of how these different areas of ‘holistic’ wellbeing have been described conceptually in the literature and in relation to visual impairment.

Table 1.

The holistic nature of wellbeing.

Area of subjective wellbeing	Concepts	Relation to visual impairment
Physical	Bodily processes and systems	Aetiology of eye conditions including visual acuity and field (Freeman, Muñoz, Rubin, & West, 2007) Mobility and functionality (Leat & Lovie-Kitchin, 2006)
Emotional	Thoughts and feelings Connectedness with oneself	Resilience (self-esteem, confidence; Zeeshan & Aslam, 2013) Empowerment (autonomy, self-control; Duckett & Pratt, 2007) Positively perceived emotions (happiness, optimism; Horowitz, 2004)
Social	Connectedness with others (humans and other species) and the external environment	Friendships and peer support (Kef, 2002) Employment and education (Bell & Mino, 2013) Human−animal bond and animal-assisted interventions (Aydin et al., 2011)
Spiritual	Sense of meaning and purpose in life Living in accordance with one’s values Connectedness to oneself and others	Spirituality as a ‘buffer’ or coping mechanism for adjusting to or living with visual impairment (Brennan & MacMillan, 2008) Finding meaning in life following a diagnosis of sight loss (Marquès-Brocksopp, 2013)

Given this growing interest in a more holistic approach, this study sought to understand the impact of a dog attack on the overall, holistic wellbeing of the guide dog owner. Specifically, it aimed to gather qualitative data to help understand the impact of attacks on the guide dog owner and identify any long-term consequences. This information may then inform future policy and practice regarding how Guide Dogs and other service providers respond to attacks and help to identify appropriate forms of support for the victims.

Method

Participants

Three participant characteristics guided the study’s purposive sampling strategy (Patton, 1990): Participants were existing or previous guide dog owners, were individuals who have experienced a dog attack on their guide dog, and were willing to speak with a researcher about the impact of the attack on their wellbeing. Selection was made using quantitative data which Guide Dogs held on reported incidents. One section of these data concerned whether a guide dog owner had been emotionally affected by the attack on their guide dog. A preliminary list of 22 potential interviewees was chosen by selecting those individuals who reported an emotional impact. Potential participants were sent a study information sheet and consent form or these were read aloud to them by their principal contact at Guide Dogs. Informed consent was given prior to participation either verbally or in written form. A total of 20 participants from across the United Kingdom agreed to participate in the study. The two potential interviewees who did not participate declined because they felt the attack was still too recent and upsetting for them to be able to discuss.

Procedure

Prior to data collection, Research Ethics Committee approval was obtained from the University of Nottingham. A semi-structured interview schedule was developed containing several key areas for discussion as highlighted in the previous literature on dog attacks: the relationship the participant had with their guide dog, the detail of the attack, and how they felt afterwards. The schedule also allowed for unexpected discoveries. Due to the disparate geographical locations of the researcher and each participant, it was agreed that the interviews would be conducted by telephone. Questions were open so as to increase the possibility of gaining unbiased participant narratives and to minimise the role and opinion of the researcher (Kvale, 1996; Trochim, 2002).

The principal contact from Guide Dogs for each guide dog owner explained that the researcher would make contact through a preliminary phone call to introduce themselves and the study. This preliminary contact gave the guide dog owner the opportunity to ask any questions about the study and time to consider whether they still wished to participate. During this initial phone call, a date and time were agreed for the telephone interview to take place. The 20 interviews were then conducted between December 2012 and March 2013.

Analysis of the narratives

Interviews were audio-recoded, transcribed, and the narratives analysed using thematic analysis. Rather than being anchored to one epistemological position, this approach allows the researcher to draw from a variety of standpoints. However, as King and Horrocks (2010) and Braun and Clarke (2006) underline, it is important to explicitly state how the analysis was approached in order to show any prior assumptions about the narratives: The analysis sought to describe the entire data set rather than one particular area so as to enable the development of all potential themes; a theme constituted an important part of the narratives in relation to the aims of the study; an inductive approach was taken, with emerging themes framed around the literature on wellbeing and the impact of visual impairment; the narratives were analysed semantically rather than latently and were interpreted within a contextualist approach, thus assuming that although language reflects experience, such an experience is dependent upon time and place.

Findings

Through data analysis and saturation, four overarching themes emerged: physical health, emotional wellbeing, social connectedness, and spiritual wellbeing. These were divided into 10 sub-themes: injury, physical symptoms of emotional trauma, exacerbation of existing physical conditions, reduced mobility and functionality, negatively perceived emotions, empowerment and resilience, changes in routine, relationships with others, financial situation, and meaning and purpose in life.

Physical health

Physical injury

Several guide dog owners sustained physical injuries during the dog attack. Some were due to falling as they lost contact with their guide dog:

I hurt my hip and my fingers were all scraped and I hit the floor quite hard when I fell . . .

Other participants spoke of how they attempted to defend their dog which resulted in injury:

I had bites to my fingers, I was bleeding, and the dog bit me on my forearm . . . and the skin was hanging off my finger nails . . . and I had puncture wounds to my wrist . . .

Another participant noted how their injuries took time to heal and in the process caused them much physical discomfort:

For weeks afterwards I couldn’t move my wrist . . . I had to keep going backwards and forwards from the Drs and had x-rays . . .

Physical symptoms of emotional trauma

Many guide dog owners also suffered from physical symptoms of shock. For some, this was a general feeling of being physically unwell:

I was stressed afterwards and that affected me physically obviously . . . nothing concrete, but I’m sure I was affected physically because of the psychological stress . . .

Another participant noted how they believed the shock of the attack was associated with developing a specific illness:

I developed shingles shortly afterwards, and I suppose that could be because of the stress . . . . it was a lot to have to cope with.

For others, this manifested as insomnia or, when they did sleep, nightmares:

I had nightmares for quite a while afterwards, which obviously affected me physically as well as emotionally . . .

Exacerbation of existing physical conditions

The attack was also found to indirectly exacerbate existing health conditions, as noted by one participant who felt that their arthritis was aggravated by having to travel regularly for medical treatment for an injury sustained during the attack:

It took about 3 weeks before my finger started to get better . . . I had to go backwards and forwards to the surgery to get new dressings . . . and I have my arthritis you see, so it got bad, and I couldn’t walk all the time . . .

Mobility and functionality

The attack also indirectly affected participant mobility and functionality due to the physical effect on their dog’s health. As noted by one participant whose dog was off work temporarily due to the attack,

My mobility was compromised . . . I need to travel across London for my job, and so I went from taking an hour with Orlando to do a journey, to taking double or triple that amount of time with a white cane . . .

If a guide dog is unable to work then it may severely affect how an individual is able to negotiate the external environment. Even when their dog returned to work, some guide dog owners believed that the effects of the attack were still apparent. Another participant, for example, spoke of how their dog appeared to become slower in their behaviour and actions and how this indirectly affected their own mobility by forcing them to also slow down:

He was off work for about 1–2 weeks . . . but he’s still trying to get back to normal now. He’s still really slow. He helps on steps and curbs but he’s not leading me anymore.

Emotional wellbeing

Negatively perceived emotions

Many guide dog owners spoke of their initial fear when their dog was being attacked. Rather than being fearful for their own safety, the majority of the participants tended to highlight their fear and deep concern for their dog, as noted by one participant:

I was literally in tears, on the floor lying next to him – I wanted the other dog to attack me instead of him . . .

As well as being afraid of the wellbeing of their dog, some of the participants also expressed how vulnerable they felt during the attack and how they also feared for their own safety:

I was really confused, and disorientated, and just wanted to get away and felt really vulnerable . . . . I was shaking, and I didn’t know what to do.

Other participants also spoke of the feeling of sheer panic as their dog was attacked. This panic, as one participant noted, left them impotent to react:

I was really shaken up, I just couldn’t believe what was happening, I was just in shock . . . . I wasn’t really able to react the way I wanted to, I just couldn’t process everything . . . . it was just a blur . . .

Others spoke of the chaos of the situation and their terror at what was happening to them and their dog. More than one participant spoke of how the attack left them in a hysterical state:

It was hysteria . . . I felt like I was in some kind of bubble . . . something then clicked . . . I couldn’t stop screaming . . . I was absolutely hysterical . . . .

Not only was the attack a terrifying ordeal for the individual, the fact that they were not able to see what was happening left them unable to help themselves or their dog. As a consequence, some participants highlighted just how frustrated they felt and how this only served to heighten their existing fear and panic:

I felt totally helpless . . . . hopeless . . . I mean, what could I do? I wanted to help Harvey . . . but I couldn’t see what was happening . . . it made me feel totally, utterly helpless . . .

Other participants also spoke of the emotional agony which they endured following the attack:

I felt like it was a bereavement . . . grief . . .

As well as the deep emotional distress caused by witnessing their guide dog being attacked, some participants also suggested they felt guilty for the way they reacted during the attack. This guilt became evident after some time had elapsed, as the guide dog owner reflected on what had happened and what they could have potentially done differently:

I probably caused the attack to last longer because of the way I reacted . . . I couldn’t stop screaming . . . I probably made it worse . . . I feel so guilty about it . . .

While the participants spoke of being frightened during and immediately after the attack, this fear continued for a substantial time afterwards. The participants spoke of how they felt this fear manifests itself as a state of anxiety and nervousness for both themselves and their dog, especially in public situations:

I was scared about going out again – and very anxious. I didn’t want to put Nikita in that situation again . . . .

Several participants remarked on their ongoing feelings of anxiousness and concern for the actual dog which committed the attack:

I know this might sound strange but I was also worried about the other dog, I wanted it to be removed from the owner, I wanted it to be ok too as it wasn’t the dog’s fault . . . .

This anxiety and concern for the welfare of the attacking dog may prevent guide dog owners from reporting the attack for the fear that the attacking dog, rather than its owner, may be the one who is punished.

Many respondents spoke of how their immediate shock and fear turned to a long-term feeling of anger in the time following the attack. This anger was largely directed at others rather than themselves, although as noted previously, some guide dog owners experienced long-term feelings of guilt and self-punishment for what they could have done differently. The majority of participants, nevertheless, articulated their anger towards others, and particularly the owner of the attacking dog, as one participant highlighted:

I felt so angry . . . and when I realised that the dog was well known as one of these ‘status dogs’, well that just exacerbated my feelings . . .

Empowerment and resilience

The analysis also found that the dog attack led to a perception of disempowerment:

It’s the lack of control you have . . . the frustration at the owner not doing anything and just being able to get away with it.

Specifically, an attack can be a step backwards for many blind and partially sighted individuals who have previously felt empowered by becoming a guide dog owner. As one participant explained, although they had previously felt their partnership with their dog had empowered them, they now felt it added to their vulnerability as they did not know when they may be attacked again:

Compared to a white cane, I felt so much more confident having a guide dog. But then I had this new problem, and because I didn’t know when it could happen, it made me feel so vulnerable . . . and it makes me realise how little I can see and just how bad it is, so it makes me feel less confident, just when I should have been feeling so much better now I’ve got Holly . . . it’s been a real step backwards.

Social connectedness

Changes in routine

Some participants reported changes in how connected they felt to others and the external environment. Their narratives spoke of enforced changes to usual routines and social activities due to the sudden reduced mobility incurred through the dog attack. Others noted how they purposefully had to change their outdoor routes for fear of coming into contact with the aggressor and their owner:

That was my route to go into town on the bus. So I had to change my route and go a different way.

By changing routines and walking routes, both guide dog and owner have to learn new journeys and with that, remember the location of new and unfamiliar obstacles and potential hazards. Nevertheless, many of the participants stressed that the fear and anxiety induced by the attack sufficiently outweighed the inconvenience of having to change their routines and learn new routes. The deliberate changing from the learned and familiar to unknown and potentially hazardous routes was also not a ‘one-off’ event. As some participants explained, they found that they were continuously having to change their everyday routes and walking patterns due to the continual discovery of new dogs which may provoke anxiety in their guide dog.

Financial situation

Some guide dog owners were unable to go to work following the attack or had to incur the expense of using taxis when their dog was not working. This economic impact in turn affected their social life, leaving them with less money to spend on activities and pastimes:

It had a great impact financially. . . I was off work for a week, I had to get taxis backwards and forwards when I did go back to work . . . I couldn’t do so much . . .

Relationships with others

Other participants highlighted how the attack also affected relationships with friends and family:

My husband, he just doesn’t understand why it still upsets me so much . . . and that makes me feel so distant from him . . . I mean, it does nothing to help me move on, does it?

I didn’t go out as much with friends, as I thought it wasn’t worth it in case we saw the dogs again . . .

As well as feeling physically disconnected from their family, friends, and external environment, several participants also spoke of how they felt metaphysically distant from society following the attack:

The world’s gone mad! No-one takes any no notice . . .

People shouldn’t be allowed to have animals if they can’t look after them properly and be responsible for them. It’s not the animals’ fault! The law isn’t on our side . . . .

Spiritual wellbeing

Meaning and purpose in life

The dog attack also affected the degree to which some participants found meaning and purpose in life. One participant noted how he felt when his guide dog was injured and unable to work for some time after the attack:

I stopped being motivated to do things, to go out, to do what I liked doing.

Similarly, another participant underlined just how ‘lost’ he felt after the dog attack:

To not have him beside me . . . . you are totally lost . . . . you have no direction, no sense of where you’re going in a metaphorical sense . . . it’s not just the fact your pet, who you love, has had something horrible happen to them . . . it’s more than that – it’s not easy to explain the relationship with a guide dog . . . . it’s more than just being emotionally affected . . . it’s deeper than that . . .

In terms of the timing of potential support, another participant explained how he did not feel motivated to seek help until he felt like he had a reason to move forward in his life again:

I just gave up for a while and thought ‘what’s the point?’. You know people talk about you talking to someone, getting psychological help . . . but sometimes you’re not really ready to . . . and you have to feel like it’s worth it, before you do . . .

Discussion

This study sought to understand the impact of a dog attack on the overall wellbeing of the guide dog owner. The findings support prior research on the impact of attacks on guide dogs and develop this area by considering the effects on different areas of an individual’s sense of wellbeing. Four overarching themes emerged from the narratives: physical health, emotional wellbeing, societal connectedness, and spiritual wellbeing. This suggests that a dog attack on a guide dog can negatively affect the physical, emotional, social, and spiritual wellbeing of a blind and partially sighted guide dog owner.

Physical health

The analysis found that a serious consequence of dog attacks on working guide dogs is the immediate physical injury to the owner. This supports findings elsewhere in the literature (Godley & Gillard, 2011) which found that if a guide dog is immobilised due to a physical attack, the owner may be at risk of immediate physical harm. While blind and partially sighted individuals are already vulnerable to environmental hazards, this sudden loss of mobility places the guide dog owner at an even greater risk of falling or coming into contact with road traffic or physical obstacles such as uneven surfaces or objects in their path (Godley & Gillard, 2011). Furthermore, as the bond between an assistance dog and their owner is often very close (Aydin et al., 2011), it is unsurprising that despite their impairment, the participants in this study tried to intervene and defend their dog, sustaining dog bites and scratches. The analysis also found evidence of immediate and delayed physical stress responses associated with ongoing health conditions. This supports the view that emotional trauma can bring about measurable changes in physical conditions such as asthma, blood pressure, or conditions such as diabetes which involve adhering to a routine and underlines the link between physical and emotional wellbeing (American Psychiatric Association [APA], 1994).

Emotional wellbeing

The analysis found that both hedonic and eudaemonic elements of emotional wellbeing were affected: inducing negatively perceived feelings (immediate and longer-term) and a long-term negative impact on empowerment (autonomy, self-control) and resilience (self-esteem, confidence). This supports previous work by Godley and Gillard (2011), who drew parallels with the human victims of dog attacks on guide dogs and those suffering from post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD; APA, 1994; Venes, 2001). Such symptoms and experiences include anxiety, phobias, flashbacks, and memory loss. These emotional symptoms and experiences may also have a reciprocal effect on physical wellbeing. Additional effects on the guide dog owner’s emotional wellbeing included a feeling of disbelief and apprehension (for fear of future attacks and subsequent verbal or physical aggression from the perpetrator’s human owner). This suggests that an attack may also increase the guide dog owner’s propensity towards developing feelings of depression: This may be a direct result of the trauma of the attack and the grief associated with injury or death of their companion animal (Brooks et al., 2010; Lonsbery, 2012). It may also be indirectly associated with the loss of mobility and functionality as a consequence of the working guide dog relationship being disrupted or stopped altogether, and thus emphasises the reciprocal relationship between different areas of human wellbeing (Knight & McNaught, 2011). The emotional impact of vision loss has been associated with a perceived reduction in mental health elsewhere in the visual impairment literature (Thurston, Thurston, & McLeod, 2010; Watkinson, 2011), with changes in sight loss or mobility highlighted as being particular risk factors for symptoms of depression (as opposed to a more static, stable situation). The lack of knowledge about one’s current and future sight loss and mobility can be particularly distressing for blind and partially sighted individuals (Horowitz, 2004). Therefore, a sudden change in an individual’s mobility and functionality due to a guide dog companion being injured, permanently withdrawn as their guide, or killed as a consequence of an attack may be a precursor for depression, as well as the grief associated with the loss of the animal. Indeed, the grief associated with the loss of an assistance animal has been linked with bereavement (Pacelle, 2011) and loss of identity, especially if the animal is perceived to be an ‘extension’ of the self (Sanders, 2000). Consequently, the risk to a guide dog owner’s mental health is twofold: as a direct emotional reaction to the attack and an indirect, subsequent emotional reaction to the realisation that they have lost the mobility they had gained through their working relationship with the guide dog.

This study also found evidence of a decreased sense of empowerment following the attack. This has been noted in the literature on wellbeing and visual impairment (Dale, 2011), suggesting that disempowerment may result from a sense of despondency about personal capabilities and negative self-identity (Dale, 2011). If an individual becomes unsure of themselves and loses confidence in what they can do and be, their self-esteem will inevitably suffer. As Evans, Fletcher, and Wormald (2007) underline, reduced self-esteem and self-concept are linked to lower levels of resilience – the perceived ability to ‘bounce back’ from adverse situations (Peterson, 1999).

Social connectedness

The analysis also found the attacks to negatively affect relationships with others, leading to decreased feelings of social wellbeing. Both the guide dogs and owners in this study developed an increased wariness or distrust of other dogs and dog owners for fear of coming into contact again with the perpetrator and their owner. As Godley and Gillard (2011) suggest, this may result in the deliberate changing of familiar routes and routines to avoid the place where the attack occurred or the known whereabouts of the canine perpetrator and their owner. Similarly, Guide Dogs (2013) research found that one guide dog owner in the United Kingdom reported wanting to move house after the attack, and two reported they were too frightened to go out following the incident. The analysis also found that many participants felt physically disconnected from society. George and Duquette (2006) suggest that disconnection and isolation may have a reciprocal negative effect on emotional wellbeing: Unable to access the help and support of their community or services, guide dog owners may feel increasingly ‘down’, hopeless, and may begin to suffer from emotional and physical symptoms associated with poor mental health. This disconnection was also felt metaphysically, with participants feeling ‘at a loss’ at how society operates.

Spiritual wellbeing

An attack on a guide dog was also found to affect the owner’s spiritual wellbeing as defined by a perceived lack of meaning, direction, and purpose in life (Nichols & Hunt, 2011). This supports prior findings by Branton (2004), who noted that an attack can have long-lasting repercussions, leaving the guide dog owner experiencing a sense of hopelessness and disbelief. This lost sense of hope may lead to a feeling that their lives have little purpose and meaning, fuelled by the sudden reduction in their functionality and mobility and being disconnected from society.

Being spiritually ‘well’ has been found to help people adjust emotionally, physically, and socially by acting as a ‘buffer’ to chronic health conditions and traumatic life events (Harrison et al., 2005; Laubmeier, Zakowski, & Bair, 2004; Mytko & Knight, 1999). Moreover, spirituality provides individuals with a sense of meaning, direction, and purpose in life, and this can help them and their families manage and adapt to difficult situations or mental health conditions. It has also been found to aid depressive symptoms brought on by visual impairment (Brennan, 2002, 2004). In this way, a sense of spirituality can be seen as instrumental in positively influencing physical, emotional, and social wellbeing. It may increase an individual’s self-esteem, confidence, or resilience (emotional wellbeing; Nosek & Hughes, 2001). This in turn may help and motivate individuals to talk about their situation and find support through their family, friends, and community and give them a sense of ‘connectedness’ (social wellbeing). By feeling emotionally stronger, and being connected with a network of support and resources, the individual may then feel stronger physically and more able to function in the way they would like to. Spirituality may also act as a ‘go-between’ in the pathway from illness and disability to wellness, ‘buffering’ the direct negative effects of traumatic life events and chronic conditions and improving psychosocial outcomes.

The literature on adjustment to traumatic events and long-term chronic conditions underlines the importance of first regaining a sense of spiritual wellbeing in order to then achieve positive subsequent emotional, social, and physical outcomes (Myers & Sweeney, 2008; Narayanasamy, 2004). This hypothesis is particularly pertinent when considering the timing and type of support a blind or partially sighted individual may need following a dog attack on their guide dog.

Although previous research by Guide Dogs had highlighted the physical impact of a dog attack, there was little evidence which descriptively explored the impact on how a guide dog owner feels emotionally, socially, and spiritually. These new findings suggest that a dog attack on a guide dog can indeed have an impact on these areas of wellbeing. The findings may also be used for future policy and practice regarding how Guide Dogs and other services respond to attacks and highlight areas which require further research.

Recommendations for service development

In order to encourage guide dog owners to report or talk about an attack, it is suggested that service providers acknowledge the wide-ranging effects of a dog attack on a guide dog owner. Several participants spoke of how they felt that while the more tangible elements of their physical wellbeing were addressed (e.g. the police helping with a physical injury at the time of the attack or Guide Dogs offering post-attack mobility support), more could be done to acknowledge the less tangible, yet often deep-rooted, long-term effects on emotional, social, and spiritual wellbeing. These recommendations support previous suggestions in the literature (Godley & Gillard, 2011, p. 606) which highlight how timely and appropriate support in the moment and following a dog attack may reduce the possibility of the guide dog owner internalising the experience and creating further stress and anxiety which may manifest itself as both physical and emotional symptoms. It is therefore recommended that service providers who manage the aftermath of an attack recognise the importance of empathy and more holistically orientated support.

Further research

Several recommendations are made for further research. Due to a lack of published research in this area, there is a need to further our understanding of how guide dog owners connect to and relate to society as a whole and how a dog attack may affect this sense of connectedness. A related point concerns the lack of studies which consider the opinions of guide dog owners regarding the wider, yet connected, issue of ‘status dogs’ and dog welfare and how this may indirectly impact upon the help they receive following an attack on their guide dog (Harding, 2010). If guide dog owners are reluctant to report or talk about an attack, then both guide dog and owner may not receive the post-attack support and rehabilitation they need for their own wellbeing.

Second, future research may wish to consider whether and how different types of support consider spiritual wellbeing, in addition to the physical, emotional, and social needs of individuals. Such research may consider how individuals can be helped to find meaning and purpose in life, and in turn a sense of spiritual wellbeing (Ryan & Deci, 2008; Wong, 2010), which has been found to lead to improvements in how well an individual feels physically, emotionally, and socially (Carmody, Reed, Kristeller, & Merriam, 2008). Connected to this is a need to understand how self-care strategies which focus on ‘time orientation’ and paying attention to present-moment feelings may help how a guide dog owner processes the aftermath of an attack. Such strategies have been discussed briefly in the literature on dog attacks on guide dogs (Godley & Gillard, 2011) and concern encouraging the individual to live in the present, rather than looking ‘backwards’ and replaying stressful events in one’s head. This is especially important following an attack on a guide dog because the owner may think about the past attack and relive the attack in their mind, which is likely to create further anxiety. Such strategies are evident in recent research into mindfulness-based interventions or practices (Mental Health Foundation, 2011; National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence [NICE], 2009) which encourage individuals to focus on the present and accept their immediate reactions. Further research may therefore wish to investigate the utility of such approaches as a form of support in the context of visual impairment.

Finally, longitudinal research may help to understand the long-term impact of such attacks and how this may differ according to particular factors such as the degree and aetiology of visual impairment, the severity and nature of the dog attack, if the dog was working in harness at the time, or the type of support received.

Limitations

It is important to underline that the findings of this study are limited to the sample in question. Future research may wish to adopt mixed methods if generalisation to all guide dog owners is sought. Furthermore, such research may benefit from also investigating the opinions of those who work with guide dogs and their owners and other service providers so as to gain a wider understanding of both the direct and indirect impact of such attacks.

Conclusion

The principal aim of this study was to understand the impact of a dog attack on the overall, holistic wellbeing of the blind and partially sighted guide dog owner. This aim was met through the analysis of deeply personal narratives detailing how the dog attack affected the guide dog owners. As well as the tangible, physical impact, the attack deeply affected the participants’ sense of emotional and spiritual wellbeing. It also changed how individuals connected with others and their environment, and therefore their sense of social wellbeing.

This study provided deeply moving narratives which detail how an attack on a guide dog is never simply that. An attack is an attack on the dog and their wellbeing and on the owner and how they feel physically, emotionally, socially, and spiritually. It is an attack on their working relationship and how this either directly or indirectly can limit the guide dog owner’s mobility. It is an attack that can break the link between guide dog and owner and potentially disrupt their long-term bond. An attack on a guide dog is not, and should not be, something which both guide dogs and their owners have to ‘put up with’. Its impact is wide-reaching, and the long-term consequences and how best services respond are something that we are only beginning to understand as we develop research in this field.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

All work was conducted as part of the usual working hours of the author at Guide Dogs. The author extends her gratitude to the Nottingham School of Veterinary Science and all her colleagues at Guide Dogs for their ongoing support with this research study. Special thanks to David Grice, Rachel Moxon, and Helen Whiteside in Canine Research.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author is employed as a Psycho-Social Research Associate within the Strategy and Research team at Guide Dogs.

Funding

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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